Polygamy and fertility in Somalia

The 1983 Somali Family Health Survey showed that polygamy and monogamy selected women with different social characteristics. Wives in polygamous unions were prone to be younger at first martial cohabitation and to have previous marital disruptions. Since a young age at first cohabitation and number of previous marriages have opposite effects on the cumulative fertility rate of women, the difference in this rate between wives in polygamous and monogamous unions vanished when both factors were controlled in a multivariate analysis.     

The palpebral fissure in Somalia

The morphology of the palpebral fissure in Somalia is studied in two samples of the population: 1236 adults and 471 school children. In both groups the presence of a slight Mongolian fold and obliquity of the rima was noted, which, by narrowing the fissure, makes the eye more suited to the climate of the country.There is an interdependence between the characteristics under examination and sex. The presence of the slight Mongolian fold is reduced in Somalian students between the ages of 13 and 22.     

Presence of rhizobia in soils in Somalia

Bradyrhizobium japonicum was absent and only low numbers of Rhizobium were present in nodulating forage legumes in 13 soil samples from the Jubba and Shabelle rivers of Somalia.The authors are with the Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale Sez, Microbiologia Applicata, Università degli Studi di Perugia, via Borgo XX Giugno 74, 06100 Perugia, Italy     

Wolbachia endosymbionts in fleas (Siphonaptera)

Intracellular endosymbionts, Wolbachia spp., have been reported in many different orders of insects and in nematodes but not previously in fleas. This is the first conclusive report of Wolbachia spp. within members of the Siphonaptera. Using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, we screened for Wolbachia spp. in fleas collected from 3 counties in Georgia and 1 in New York. The prevalence of Wolbachia spp. detected varied among the 6 different species screened: 21% in the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (n = 604), 7% in the dog flea C. canis (n = 28), 25% in Polygenus gwyni (n = 8), 80% in Orchopeas howardi (n = 15), 94% in Pulex simulans (n = 255), and 24% in the sticktight flea Echidnophaga gallinacea (n = 101). Wolbachia spp. infection in fleas was confirmed by sequencing positive PCR products, comparing sequenced 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) with Wolbachia spp. sequences in GenBank using BLAST search, and subjecting sequence data to phylogenetic analysis. For further confirmation, 16S rDNA-positive samples were reamplified using the wsp gene.     

Female circumcision in Somalia: anthropological traits

In 1981, 2497 subjects (comprising women and girls) were interviewed in Somalia, mostly in Mogadish, about female circumcision. In this study there are presented the principle cultural trends which are connected with the custom and which have arisen from the research. Even today, the practice of female circumcision is universal in Somalia; the percentage of circumcised women was 99.3%. Infibulation is the commonest type of circumcision used (75.7%). The age of circumcision varies from birth to 15; the average being 7.5. The type of circumcision does not seem to be influenced by some environmental variables (e.g. birth place of parents or place of circumcision), it is primarily determined by the population of the individual region. Infibulation is accepted to the greatest extent by the pastoral populations of the middle/northern regions, principally in Ogaden and in the 4 Somalian regions on which it borders: Togdheer, Nugal, Muddug, Galgadud. In the southern regions (Upper, Middle, Lower Giuba) amongst rural populations or populations with a cattle/cultivation economy, there are also attenuated types of circumcision: sunna and clitoridectomia (20 to 30%). The evolution of the practice was studied by data of the subjects, of their mothers and of their daughters. From this analysis there was no indication toward non-circumcision. There is, however, a movement towards the attenuated forms of circumcision. The fundamental key to such an attenuated operation for a child seems to be the presence of the same attenuation in previous generations.     

Continuities and changes regarding minorities in Somalia

Somali society has long since been considered ethnically homogenous. The better known pastoral-nomadic section of society was perceived as representative. Politics and economy throughout the twentieth century were controlled by ‘majority’ clan members. ‘Minority group’ members were generally marginalized and sometimes even oppressed and exploited; during the civil war from 1991 onwards, they became easy victims for majority group militias. Previously respected religious or occupational ‘castes’ also fell victim to the general insecurity and lawlessness during that period. The civil war not only had enormous negative consequences for minority group members; in some cases, it increased the self-consciousness of minority groups and led to the formation of new identities that, in combination with international organizations and their human rights policies, provided members of certain groups with chances for resettlement or made them actively demand more rights.     

Notes on Tetragonia (Aizoaceae-Tetragonioideae) in Somalia

Tetragonia pentandra , previously believed to be an endemic of Socotra, is reported from northern Somalia. T. retusa sp. nov., a very distinctive endemic of central Somalia with features that partly link Tetragonia and Tribulocarpus , is described and illustrated.     

Notes on Withania (Solanaceae) in Somalia

The identity of Withania reichenbachii is established, the name is neotypified, and the species is described and illustrated. The new combination W. grisea (Hepper & Boulos) Thulin is made. The typification of W. somnifera is discussed, and it is concluded that the present typification can stand. A key to and a synopsis of the four species of Withania now recognised in Somalia are given.     

Adaptations of fleas (Siphonaptera) to parasitism

The paper deals with peculiarities of flea structure determined by their parasitism on mammals and birds. On the basis of the data on diversity of morphological characters, the leading role of structures of the frontal and nototrochanteral complexes in the adaptive evolution of Siphonaptera is substantiated. Peculiarities of the pulicoid, ischnopsylloid, palaeopsylloid, and generalized morphological types are analyzed together with examples of narrow morphological specializations. Distribution of fleas of these morphological types over five groups of hosts differing in the degree of mobility and association with nests and burrows is also analyzed.     

A new genus of Sapindaceae from Somalia

The new genus Hirania (Sapindaceae), with the single species H. rosea from south-central Somalia, is decribed and illustrated. It is a shrub with simple, entire leaves, alternate or crowded on short-shoots, and without stipules. The inflorescences are branched with monochasially arranged, unisexual flowers. The flowers (only male ones known) are zygomorphic with five sepals with gland-tipped hairs along margins, four pink, subequal, clawed petals without appendages, and eight, glabrous stamens. The dark purple disk is narrow and tubular and consists of an upper broader segment partly enclosing a lower narrower segment. The closest relative is believed to be the Australian genus Diplopeltis.     

Facultative imaginal diapause in Xenopsylla conformis (Siphonaptera) fleas

The factors favouring the cessation of reproduction in X. conformis are laid in the preimaginal state. The drop in temperature during the formation of imago at the pupal stage is a signal for the cessation of reproduction. Imagos hatched at a temperature lower than that of developmental conditions of preimaginal stages do not start reproduction and enter facultative imaginal diapause state. With further decrease in temperature the state of fleas intensifies. With the rise of temperature fleas come out of diapause. In autumn coming out of diapause begins at a temperature higher than 20 degrees, on the 8th--9th day. The lower air temperature the more rapid is coming out of diapause, at a rise of temperature of 3 to 5 degrees.     

Fleas of the Lake Evoron vole (Siphonaptera)

In Lower Priamurje in summer of 1977-1979 Microtus evoronensis was parasitized mainly by fleas of Ceratophyllus calcarifer. Other seven species of fleas recorded from this animal are very rare. They are connected, in general, with other small mammals and birds.     

A new species of Aloe from northeast Somalia

A small tree species of Aloe from the Al Miskat Mountains of northeast Somalia, related to A. medishiana , is described as A. miskatana , and the relationship of A. gracilicaulis with A. medishiana is discussed.     

Notes on the Caryophyllaceae of Ethiopia and Somalia

Four new species from Somalia are described: Herniaria bicolor, Lochia parvibracta, Polycarpaea guardafuensis and P. clavifolia. Two new combinations are made: Minuartia ellenbeckii and Silene gillettii.