Molecular control of myogenesis: antagonism between growth and differentiation

Insight into the molecular mechanisms that control establishment of the skeletal muscle phenotype has recently been obtained through cloning of a family of muscle-specific regulatory factors that can activate myogenesis when transfected into non-muscle cells. This family of factors, which includes MyoD, myogenin, myf-5, and MRF4, can bind DNA and transactivate muscle-specific genes in collaboration with ubiquitous cellular factors. Growth factors play an antagonistic role in myogenesis by suppressing the actions of the myogenic regulatory factor family. This review will focus on the regulation and mechanism of action of this family of myogenic regulatory factors and on the central role of peptide growth factors in modulating their expression and biological activities.     

刺激大鼠右侧胼胝体激活对侧尾壳核-海马癫痫相关性神经网络

目的：探讨慢性激活右侧胼胝体(corpus callosum,CC)重建对侧尾壳核(caudate-putamen,CPu)-海马(hippocam-pus,HPC)癫痫网络的跨半球机制。方法：SD大鼠50只。慢性强直电刺激(60Hz,0．4～0．6mA,2s)右侧CC(chronic tetanization of the rignt CC,CTRCC),一天一次,8d后再次施加强直电刺激,同步记录左侧CPu(LCPu)和左侧HPC(LHPC)电图。结果：CTRCC①引起LCPu和LHPC出现深部电波的交互性抑制现象,LCPu电图出现持续尖波发放时交互抑制现象消失。②诱发LCPu和LHPC电图出现癫痫点燃现象。③未引起大鼠LCPu和LH-PC电图点燃时,急性强直电刺激可诱发LCPu出现高幅失律,压抑LHPC具有频率特征的尖波连续发放。④联合运用慢性和急性强直电刺激可诱导LCPu或LHPC电图出现原发性后放。结论：慢性激活ROC可促进对侧CPu-HPC癫痫网络的重建。形成新的癫痫病灶。     

生长抑素对实验性癫痫大鼠海马CA1区的作用

在大鼠海马ＣＡ１区微量注射０．０３－０．３ｎｍｏｌ生长抑素（ｓｏｍａｔｏｓｔａｔｉｎ,ＳＳ）后,皮层脑电出现单个或成串的棘尖波,平均脑电总功率著升高,并且在一定范围内（０．００６－０．１５ｎｍｏｌ）具有剂量依赖性。在海马ＣＡ１微量注射０．０３－０．３ｎｍｏｌＳＳ可诱发大鼠表现出痫样行为,并可加重红藻氨酸诱导的大鼠痫样活动。在９５个大鼠海马脑片上细胞外记录ＳＳ对ＣＡ１区青霉素诱导的１１４个痫样放电单     

Synaptic and non-synaptic plasticity between individual pyramidal cells in the rat hippocampus in vitro

We report here two forms of activity-dependent plasticity of the transfer of neuronal information between pairs of monosynaptically coupled pyramidal cells. In a first part, we discuss the induction of long-term bidirectional changes in excitatory synaptic transmission following defined regimes of neuronal activity. In a second part, we provide evidence that the conditions in which the presynaptic action potential is elicited determine whether it will successfully propagate along the presynaptic axon.     

Lateral entorhinal cortex lesions rearrange afferents, glutamate receptors, increase seizure latency and suppress seizure-induced c-fos expression in the hippocampus of adult rat

The entorhinal cortex (EC) provides the predominant excitatory drive to the hippocampal CA1 and subicular neurones in chronic epilepsy. Here we analysed the effects of one-sided lateral EC (LEC) and temporoammonic (alvear) path lesion on the development and properties of 4-aminopyridine-induced seizures. Electroencephalography (EEG) analysis of freely moving rats identified that the lesion increased the latency of the hippocampal seizure significantly and decreased the number of brief convulsions. Seizure-induced neuronal c-fos expression was reduced in every hippocampal area following LEC lesion. Immunocytochemical analysis 40 days after the ablation of the LEC identified sprouting of cholinergic and calretinin-containing axons into the dentate molecular layer. Region and subunit specific changes in the expression of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) were identified. Although the total amount of AMPA receptor subunits remained unchanged, GluR1(flop) displayed a significant decrease in the CA1 region. An increase in NR1 and NR2B N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits and KA-2 kainate receptor subunit was identified in the deafferented layers of the hippocampus. These results further emphasize the importance of the lateral entorhinal area in the spread and regulation of hippocampal seizures and highlight the potential role of the rewiring of afferents and rearrangement of iGluRs in the dentate gyrus in hippocampal convulsive activity.     

大鼠海马的表达蛋白质组学实验研究

目的：用蛋白质组学方法初步分析大鼠海马蛋白质的表达。方法：提取大鼠海马蛋白质样品后,用双向凝胶电泳对其分离,经考马斯亮蓝染色后,产生大鼠海马蛋白质双向凝胶电泳图谱。从凝胶上切割分离的蛋白质,经胰蛋白酶胶内酶解,通过基质辅助激光解吸／电离飞行时间质谱（MALDI-TOF-MS）对酶解后的肽段进行分析。根据肽段质谱数据,经数据库（NCBI）检索,对蛋白质进行鉴定。结果：鉴定了37种具有明确功能的蛋白质,它们分别属于代谢酶、细胞骨架蛋白、热休克蛋白、抗氧化蛋白、信号传导蛋白、蛋白酶体相关蛋白、神经元特异蛋白及神经胶质蛋白。另外,鉴定了3种未知功能蛋白。结论：为建立大鼠海马蛋白质组数据库提供必要的资料,为在大鼠模型上研究神经疾病发病机理奠定基础。     

电刺激大鼠右后背海马诱导前背海马神经网络癫痫样电活动

本文旨在探讨单侧海马(hippocampus,HPC)内神经网络与HPC癫痫发生的关系及其细胞机制。实验在45只SSprague-Dawley大鼠上完成。急性强直电刺激大鼠右侧后背HPC CAl基树突区(acute tetanizatio of the posterior dorsal hippocampus,ATPDH;60Hz,2s,0.4-0.6mA)诱发HPC癫痫模型,同步记录同侧前背HPC CAl顶树突区单位放电和基树突区深部电图。结果,ATPDH可以沿长铀向前1．8mm处对前背MIC神经网络产生下述效应：(1)同步或非同步原发性单位与深部电图后放电,在同步性后放电锁时(time-lock)关系明显。非同步性后放电的深部电图癫痫样电活动具有宽频带特征(5-90Hz);(2)原发性单位后放-后抑制效应可以引发低频原发性电图后放电,长时程爆发式单位放电可以诱发高频原发性电图后放电;(3)短束原发性电图后放电也可以诱发原发性单位后放电;(4)原发性电图后放电和神经元单位放电的抑制效应具有明显可塑性特征。以上结果提示,重复施加ATPDH可以引起前背HPC癫痫相关性病理生理性神经网络的重建;而单个神经元与神经网络的异常电活动之间具有明显的互动作用和突触传递可塑性特征;沿HPC长铀内在抑制性通路的过度活动也可以诱发电图癫痫样电活动,导致HPC网络癫痫的发生。     

Structural Remodeling of the Neuronal Network in the Dentate Gyrus of the Epileptically Transformed Murine Hippocampus

Immunohistochemical analysis of the hippocampus of a transgene mutant line of the mice (genetic model of temporal epilepsy) demonstrated a progressive increase in the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in granular cells of the dentate gyrus and their axons; this increase correlated with an enhancement of the level of epileptic activity. Epileptogenic reprojection of mossy fibers toward an internal zone of the molecular layer of the hippocampus was also observed. In addition, we observed excessive spreading of the zone of axon branching of GABA-ergic basket cells, as compared with the norm; their maximum collateralization was found within an internal zone of the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus. This allows us to hypothesize that the processes of sprouting of the mossy fibers and recovery of recurrent inhibition of the granular cells are interrelated.     

Up-regulation of neuropeptide Y levels and modulation of glutamate release through neuropeptide Y receptors in the hippocampus of kainate-induced epileptic rats

Kainate-induced epilepsy has been shown to be associated with increased levels of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the rat hippocampus. However, there is no information on how increased levels of this peptide might modulate excitation in kainate-induced epilepsy. In this work, we investigated the modulation of glutamate release by NPY receptors in hippocampal synaptosomes isolated from epileptic rats. In the acute phase of epilepsy, a transient decrease in the efficiency of NPY and selective NPY receptor agonists in inhibiting glutamate release was observed. Moreover, in the chronic epileptic hippocampus, a decrease in the efficiency of NPY and the Y(2) receptor agonist, NPY13-36, was also found. Simultaneously, we observed that the epileptic hippocampus expresses higher levels of NPY, which may account for an increased basal inhibition of glutamate release. Consistently, the blockade of Y(2) receptors increased KCl-evoked glutamate release, and there was an increase in Y(2) receptor mRNA levels 30 days after kainic acid injection, suggesting a basal effect of NPY through Y(2) receptors. Taken together, these results indicate that an increased function of the NPY modulatory system in the epileptic hippocampus may contribute to basal inhibition of glutamate release and control hyperexcitability.     

杏仁核注射红藻氨酸诱导大鼠边缘叶癫痫发作时海马中Smac和XIAP蛋白的表达

应用红藻氨酸(kainic acid,KA)诱导的大鼠边缘叶癫痫发作模型,检测第二个线粒体源的半胱天冬蛋白酶激活物,直接与凋亡抑制蛋白结合的低等电点蛋白(second mitochondrial activator of caspases／direct inhibitor of apoptosis protein-binding protein of low isoelectric point[PI],Smac／DIABLO)和X染色体连锁的凋亡抑制蛋白(X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein,XIAP)在癫痫大鼠海马神经元表达。单侧杏仁核内注射KA诱导癫痫发作,1h后用安定终止发作,然后分别用TUNEL染色和cresyl violet染色观察海马神经元存活和凋亡的变化,用免疫荧光和Western blot检测海马Smac／DIABLO、XIAP和半胱天冬蛋白酶-9(caspase-9)的表达。结果表明,发作终止2h时KA注射同侧海马CA3区细胞浆内Smac／DIABLO蛋白表达增加,4h时caspase-9出现裂解片断,8h时出现TUNEL阳性细胞,24h时达高峰。脑室内注射caspase-9抑制剂z-LEHD-fluoromethyl ketone(z-LEHD-fmk)可减少TUNEL阳性细胞,增加存活神经元。发作后KA注射同侧海马CA3区神经元caspase-9免疫反应性增强,Smac／DIABLO和XIAP弥散于整个神经元内。对侧海马未检测到TUNEL阳性细胞及Smac／DIABLO和XIAP蛋白的上述变化。以上结果提示,癫痫发作可诱导Smac／DIABLO蛋白从线粒体向细胞浆的移位、XIAP亚细胞分布改变和caspase-9的激活,Smac／DIABLO、XIAP和caspase-9可能参与了癫痫神经元损伤的病理生理机制,caspase-9可能是潜在的治疗靶点。     

ATP dependence of the SNARE/caveolin 1 interaction in the hippocampus

The molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of neurotransmission has been an open question for many years. Here, we have examined an interaction between caveolin1 and SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmalemide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) which may contribute to the cellular mechanisms underlying changes in synaptic strength. Previously, we reported that application of 4-aminopyridine to hippocampal slices resulted in a persistent potentiation of synaptic transmission and the induction of a short-lasting and specific 40-kDa complex composed of synaptosomal associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP25) and caveolin1. We have characterized the binding properties of these proteins and observed that in vitro caveolin1 directly associates with both SNAP25 and syntaxin. Caveolin/SNARE interactions are enhanced in the presence of ATP by a mechanism that involves phosphorylation. While caveolin has been associated with cholesterol transport, signal transduction, and transcytosis, this study provides evidence that caveolin is also a SNARE accessory protein.     

Anesthetic and postanesthetic effects of isoflurane on neuronal activity in the rat hippocampus

In this study, we explored anesthetic and postanesthetic effects of isoflurane on GABA-ergic and glutamatergic systems in the rat hippocampus. Our results demonstrate that different neuronal targets affected by isoflurane recover from anesthesia at dissimilar rates. Neirofiziologiya/Neurophysiology, Vol. 39, Nos. 4/5, pp. 371–373, July–October, 2007.     

Bone microstructure and developmental plasticity in birds and other dinosaurs

Patterns of bone microstructure have frequently been used to deduce dynamics and processes of growth in extant and fossil tetrapods. Often, the various types of primary bone tissue have been associated with different bone deposition rates and more recently such deductions have extended to patterns observed in dinosaur bone microstructure. These previous studies are challenged by the findings of the current research, which integrates an experimental neontological approach and a paleontological comparison. We use tetracycline labeling and morphometry to study the variability of bone deposition rates in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) growing under different experimental conditions. We compare resulting patterns in bone microstructure with those found in fossil birds and other dinosaurs. We found that a single type of primary bone varies significantly in rates of growth in response to environmental conditions. Ranging between 10-50 microm per day, rates of growth overlap with the full range of bone deposition rates that were previously associated with different patterns of bone histology. Bone formation rate was significantly affected by environmental/experimental conditions, skeletal element, and age. In the quail, the experimental conditions did not result in formation of lines of arrested growth (LAGs). Because of the observed variation of bone deposition rates in response to variation in environmental conditions, we conclude that bone deposition rates measured in extant birds cannot simply be extrapolated to their fossil relatives. Additionally, we observe the variable incidence of LAGs and annuli among several dinosaur species, including fossil birds, extant sauropsids, as well as nonmammalian synapsids, and some extant mammals. This suggests that the ancestral condition of the response of bone to environmental conditions was variable. We propose that such developmental plasticity in modern birds may be reduced in association with the shortened developmental time during the later evolution of the ornithurine birds.     

Effect of thapsigargin on inhibitory synaptic transmission between cultured neurons of the rat hippocampus

We carried out electrophysiological experiments on cultured neurons of the rat hippocampus. The voltage-clamp technique and extracellular stimulation of single presynaptic axons were used for measurements of the evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs). It was found that 1 μM thapsigargin is capable of modulating inhibitory synaptic transmission, and the effects were ambivalent. Among 21 examined cells, eIPSCs decreased in 15 neurons and were augmented in 6 units; the kinetic parameters of these currents underwent no changes. Neirofiziologiya/Neurophysiology, Vol. 39, Nos. 4/5, pp. 374–376, July–October, 2007.     

局部高频电刺激海马对海人酸致痫大鼠海马细胞外谷氨酸和γ-氨基丁酸释放的影响

目的：通过高频电刺激海人酸癫痫模型大鼠海马,观察海马细胞外谷氨酸（Glu）和γ-氨基丁酸（GABA）的动态变化。方法：将SD大鼠分成4大组（n=10）：①空白组;②海人酸组;③假刺激组：植入刺激电极未予电刺激;④电刺激组：海人酸注射后予130 Hz电刺激。利用微透析技术收集不同时段海马细胞外液,应用高效液相-荧光检测法测定收集液Glu、GABA的浓度。结果：注射海人酸后Glu明显升高,并持续至第14天,电刺激使Glu明显下降;而注射海人酸后GABA呈短暂性升高,后逐渐下降于第4天后保持稍高于正常水平,电刺激并无明显改变GABA的水平。结论：海马细胞外Glu下降在海马电刺激治疗癫痫中起到重要作用;高频电刺激海马选择性地减少谷氨酸能神经元活动,但不影响GABA的释放。