Abundance and distribution of elephants in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Elephant density over 40 000 km² of the Luangwa Valley was estimated as 2–17 km^-2 to give a population size of around 86 000 in that area, a tally that would probably top 100 000 if unsurveyed areas within the drainage had been included. Seasonal movement is largely restricted to a migration on to the riverine strip during the wet season and reciprocal dispersal across the valley thereafter. The mean annual range of movement is about 25 km.     

The dating and interpretation of a Mode 1 site in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Flake based assemblages (Mode 1) comprise the earliest stone technologies known, with well-dated Oldowan sites occurring in eastern Africa between ∼ 2.6-1.7 Ma, and in less securely dated contexts in central, southern and northern Africa. Our understanding of the spread and local development of this technology outside East Africa remains hampered by the lack of reliable numerical dating techniques applicable to non-volcanic deposits. This study applied the still relatively new technique of cosmogenic nuclide burial dating (¹⁰Be/²⁶Al) to calculate burial ages for fluvial gravels containing Mode 1 artefacts in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. The Manzi River, a tributary of the Luangwa River, has exposed a 4.7 m deep section of fluvial sands with discontinuous but stratified gravel layers bearing Mode 1, possibly Oldowan, artefacts in the basal layers. An unconformity divides the Manzi section, separating Mode 1 deposits from overlying gravels containing Mode 3 (Middle Stone Age) artefacts. No diagnostic Mode 2 (Acheulean) artefacts were found.Cosmogenic nuclide burial dating was attempted for the basal gravels as well as exposure ages for the upper Mode 3 gravels, but was unsuccessful. The complex depositional history of the site prevented the calculation of reliable age models. A relative chronology for the full Manzi sequence was constructed, however, from the magnetostratigraphy of the deposit (N>R>N sequence). Isothermal thermoluminescence (ITL) dating of the upper Mode 3 layers also provided consistent results (∼78 ka). A coarse but chronologically coherent sequence now exists for the Manzi section with the unconformity separating probable mid- or early Pleistocene deposits below from late Pleistocene deposits above. The results suggest Mode 1 technology in the Luangwa Valley may post-date the Oldowan in eastern and southern Africa. The dating programme has contributed to a clearer understanding of the geomorphological processes that have shaped the valley and structured its archaeological record.     

Mitochondrial DNA analyses show that Zambia's South Luangwa Valley giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti) are genetically isolated

Thornicroft's giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti, is a geographically isolated subspecies of giraffe found only in north‐east Zambia. The population only occurs in Zambia's South Luangwa Valley, an area which interestingly places it between the current distribution of Masai (G. c. tippelskirchi) giraffe to the north, and the Angolan (G. c. angolensis) and South African (G. c. giraffa) giraffe in the south‐west and south, respectively. Specific studies have been undertaken on the ecology of this subspecies, but their population genetics remains unknown. We studied 34 individuals from the South Luangwa National Park and adjacent Lupande Game Management Area and seven individuals from northern Botswana. The complete cytochrome b and control region sequences of the mitochondrial genome were sequenced and analysed together with database data by maximum likelihood tree reconstruction and maximum parsimony network analyses. The giraffe from Zambia's South Luangwa Valley are most closely related to the subspecies G. c. tippelskirchi and part of their radiation. However, they form a unique population that would benefit from increased research and conservation management.     

Genetic perspectives on forager‐farmer interaction in the Luangwa Valley of Zambia

The transformation from a foraging way of life to a reliance on domesticated plants and animals often led to the expansion of agropastoralist populations at the expense of hunter‐gatherers (HGs). In Africa, one of these expansions involved the Niger‐Congo Bantu‐speaking populations that started to spread southwards from Cameroon/Nigeria ～4,000 years ago, bringing agricultural technologies. Genetic studies have shown different degrees of gene flow (sometimes involving sex‐biased migrations) between Bantu agriculturalists and HGs. Although these studies have covered many parts of sub‐Saharan Africa, the central part (e.g. Zambia) was not yet studied, and the interactions between immigrating food‐producers and local HGs are still unclear. Archeological evidence from the Luangwa Valley of Zambia suggests a long period of coexistence (～1,700 years) of early food‐producers and HGs. To investigate if this apparent coexistence was accompanied by genetic admixture, we analyzed the mtDNA control region, Y chromosomal unique event polymorphisms, and 12 associated Y‐ short tandem repeats in two food‐producing groups (Bisa and Kunda) that live today in the Luangwa Valley, and compared these data with available published data on African HGs. Our results suggest that both the Bisa and Kunda experienced at most low levels of admixture with HGs, and these levels do not differ between the maternal and paternal lineages. Coalescent simulations indicate that the genetic data best fit a demographic scenario with a long divergence (62,500 years) and little or no gene flow between the ancestors of the Bisa/Kunda and existing HGs. This scenario contrasts with the archaeological evidence for a long period of coexistence between the two different communities in the Luangwa Valley, and suggests a process of sociocultural boundary maintenance may have characterized their interaction. Am J Phys Anthropol 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Prey selection and annual harvest of game in a rural Zambian community

The selection and hunting patterns of Valley Bisa hunters were studied as part of a broader ecological investigation of human communities between the two sections of the Luangwa Valley Game Reserves in Zambia. This article provides information on the frequency and duration of hunts recorded for 1 year, yields of individual hunters, prey selection, frequency of kill, community meat supplies and the effect of human and carnivore predation on population levels on a study area of some 155 km². Individuals who hunted were classified into four categories–resident, transient, occasional, and official, dependent upon their role in the community, length of time spent on the study area and their village of primary residence. The most frequent hunters were residents followed in rank order by officials, transients and occasionals. Hunts were of shorter duration during the dry season, when game was close to villages, than during the wet season. Generally hunters who owned or had access to modern weapons were more successful in their pursuits of game than were those who used muzzle-loading guns. A total of 27 451 kg of meat (carcass yield) was made available to 466 local residents during the course of the year; 40% of this was attributed to the activities of the game guards. Valley Bisa hunters killed primarily buffalo, impala, warthogs, and waterbuck; most of these were males and adults. The kills recorded for carnivores suggest that they took primarily female buffalo and zebra. There was no evidence to suggest that either type of predation was damaging to the game herds on the study area.     

Large herbivores in Upper Lupande Game Management Area, Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Upper Lupande Game Management area in Luangwa Valley, Zambia currently supports good populations of sixteen large and medium-sized herbivores. Impala was the most abundant constituting 34% of the total population estimates, followed by buffalo (19%), zebra (12%), wildebeest (10%), warthog (8%), elephant (6%) and hippopotamus (3%). Other species made up the remaining 8%. The survey zone contained a herbivore biomass of 10,796.18 times 10³ kg. Elephants contributed 50.2% and buffalo 25.1% of the total herbivore biomass of the area. The estimated maximum sustainable off-take potential in Upper Lupande was 1110.14 times 10³kg per annum. The distribution of most of the species studied suggested favourable recruitment status. There were species-specific distribution patterns and densities in the survey zone.     

Seasonal and geographical influences on the feeding ecology of giraffes in the Luangwa Valley,Zambia: 1973–2014

Obtaining longitudinal data about the feeding ecology of long‐lived iteroparous mammals is rare, but enhances our understanding of how the environment influences niche breadth and dietary diversity within a species. We analysed forty years of feeding records obtained from a population of Thornicroft's giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti) living in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Giraffes are browsers that have been reported to feed primarily upon Acacia leaves, but their feeding ecology in some locations conflict with this interpretation. Giraffes in the Luangwa Valley fed on 93 identified plant species, but only a few contributed to the bulk of the diet. Niche breadth was quite large (Shannon‐Weiner Diversity Index H′ = 3.699) and about 13% more diverse during the dry, than wet, season. Key species eaten during the dry season were very consistent across decades, with Kigelia africana and Capparis tomentosa prominent at this time. The evolutionary ecology of giraffes has probably benefitted from a foraging strategy that includes a variable and high‐quality diet during the hot, dry season, when feeding pressures are greatest. Giraffe feeding ecology has evolved in conjunction with their physiology, anatomy and morphology, resulting in an animal that is well adapted for survival in an arid environment.     

宁夏黄河流域景观破碎化时空变化特征

基于RS和GIS技术,以土地利用数据为基础,采用有效粒度尺寸对宁夏黄河流域1985年和2010年的景观破碎化进行时空变化分析。结果显示:流域整体的有效粒度尺寸(meff)从1985年的6326.62 km2下降到2010年的2974.32 km2,破碎化程度呈显著加剧变化;从流域内部来看,景观破碎化程度最大的是黄左区间,破碎化程度最小的是苦水河和红柳沟;除引黄区间外,其余分区景观破碎化程度在25年间均有所加剧。特征尺度分析结果显示研究区景观破碎化空间变异分析的合适尺度为4500 m;景观破碎化指数的空间变异结果表明破碎化程度较大的区域面积明显多于破碎化程度弱的区域,景观破碎化空间异质性在25年间表现出明显的上升趋势。在海拔背景条件下,2400 m以下区域的景观破碎化程度较高,2400m以上区域破碎化程度较低,且随海拔的升高有降低的趋势;流域景观破碎化受人为干扰影响强烈,在人为干扰较强的1000—1500 m区段的景观破碎化程度最大;景观破碎化在时间上的变化受人为干扰影响产生的变化最为显著,由自然条件改变产生的影响有限。研究结果可为西北地区景观格局及景观破碎化的研究提供参考,并为区域景观格局优化和土地的有效管理提供依据。     

Distribution and abundance of trypanosome (subgenus Nannomonas) infections of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes in southern Africa

Over 10000 Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies were collected during two field studies in the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe and one in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. These were screened for mature trypanosome infections and 234 dot-blot preparations were made of infected midguts, which were screened using DNA probes or PCR with primers specific to different species or types of the trypanosome subgenus Nannomonas. Over 70% of midgut infections were successfully identified as either Trypanosoma godfreyi, T. simiae or three types of T. congolense, savannah, riverine-forest and Kilifi. The relative abundance of species and types did not vary significantly between study locations, habitat, season or tsetse age or sex, although there were differences between DNA probe and PCR results. Mixed species and/or mixed type infections were common and were more often detected using PCR. The distribution of infections among flies was highly aggregated, but there was no tendency for multiple infections to accumulate in older flies, implying that sequential superinfection may be uncommon. Possible explanations for these patterns are discussed.     

The impact of giraffe, rhino and elephant on the habitat of a black rhino sanctuary in Kenya

The habitat in an enclosed black rhino sanctuary, the Sweetwaters Game Reserve in Kenya, is being altered as populations of elephant, giraffe and black rhino increase. Height‐specific browse impact data were recorded for 1075 trees of the dominant species, the whistling thorn, Acacia drepanolobium. Rhinos and elephants browsed 18% of these trees in 1 year, including 5% that were killed or removed. The remaining trees were subjected to high levels of giraffe browse and low rainfall and grew by only 7.5 cm in a year. A mathematical model has been constructed that predicts how the number of trees ha^?1 will change with time under different browsing impacts. The model compares recruitment rate with removal rate and estimates that the number of trees ha^?1 will fall by 2% per year under the current browsing impact of black rhino (0.27 per km²), elephant (1.1 per km²) and giraffe (1.9 per km²). In 7 years, if the rhino and elephant populations continue to increase at the current rates, tree density will be falling by 5% per year and nearly one‐third of the trees will have been removed. These conditions are unsustainable and will result in habitat change and may affect rhino breeding. Several ways of alleviating the problem are discussed.     

Alkaline phosphatase as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros

The objective was to determine if seminal alkaline phosphatase (ALP) can serve as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros. Concentrations of ALP activity were determined in seminal fractions collected from African black rhinos (Diceros bicornis), an African white rhino (Ceratotherium simum), and an Indian rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) during electroejaculation. In addition, seminal fractions collected during penile massage of a Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) were assessed. Correlations between ALP activity and sperm concentration, fraction pH, and fraction osmolality were evaluated in the Indian rhino and black rhino. Concentrations of ALP activity in rhino ejaculate fractions ranged from < 5 to 11,780 U/L and were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with sperm concentration for both Indian rhino (r = 0.995) and black rhino (r = 0.697), but did not exhibit a strong correlation with either pH or osmolality (P > 0.05). Data were insufficient for establishing meaningful correlation coefficients in the Sumatran rhino and white rhino, but preliminary results were in accordance with findings in the Indian rhino and black rhino. We concluded that ALP was present in rhinoceros semen, likely originated from the epididymides and/or testes, and could serve as a useful tool for assessing the production of ejaculatory versus pre-ejaculatory fluid in the rhinoceros.     

Alkaline phosphatase as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros

The objective was to determine if seminal alkaline phosphatase (ALP) can serve as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros. Concentrations of ALP activity were determined in seminal fractions collected from African black rhinos (Diceros bicornis), an African white rhino (Ceratotherium simum), and an Indian rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) during electroejaculation. In addition, seminal fractions collected during penile massage of a Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) were assessed. Correlations between ALP activity and sperm concentration, fraction pH, and fraction osmolality were evaluated in the Indian rhino and black rhino. Concentrations of ALP activity in rhino ejaculate fractions ranged from < 5 to 11,780 U/L and were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with sperm concentration for both Indian rhino (r = 0.995) and black rhino (r = 0.697), but did not exhibit a strong correlation with either pH or osmolality (P > 0.05). Data were insufficient for establishing meaningful correlation coefficients in the Sumatran rhino and white rhino, but preliminary results were in accordance with findings in the Indian rhino and black rhino. We concluded that ALP was present in rhinoceros semen, likely originated from the epididymides and/or testes, and could serve as a useful tool for assessing the production of ejaculatory versus pre-ejaculatory fluid in the rhinoceros.     

Reserve Size,Conspecific Density,and Translocation Success for Black Rhinoceros

Abstract: Fighting and accidental injury commonly cause black rhinoceros (rhino; Diceros bicornis) death after release. Smaller reserves and higher conspecific density after release (release density) might increase a rhino's encounter rate with hazards like fenced boundaries and conspecifics. We conducted a science-by-management experiment on the influence of reserve size and release density on rates of movement, association, and injury and death amongst 39 black rhinos during the first 100 days after their release into 4 Namibian and 8 South African reserves ranging in size from 670 ha to 45,000 ha. Association rates were negatively related to reserve size and positively correlated with release density. There was also a negative relationship between the proportion of the reserve traversed by individual rhinos and reserve size. In reserves ≥18,000 ha association rates were consistently zero but became elevated in reserves ≤11,500 ha and at release densities ≤9 km²/rhino. Daily displacement did not increase with increasing reserve size >8,500 ha but in smaller reserves daily displacements indicated higher encounter rates by released rhinos with fenced boundaries. Three rhinos received fight-related injuries requiring intervention and 2 of 4 deaths were fight-related. All injuries and 3 deaths occurred in reserves ≤11,500 ha. Model selection based on Akaike's second-order Information Criterion indicated that the parameter release density alone best explained mortality risk. Traditionally considered risk factors, rhino sex, age, and presence of resident conspecifics, were superseded by the risk posed by releases into smaller reserves. Reserves ≤11,500 ha and release densities ≤9 km²/rhino pose an increasing risk to rhino survivorship and so larger reserves and lower densities than these should be favored as release sites.     

Molecular Basis for the rhino (hr)Phenotype: A Nonsense Mutation in the MousehairlessGene

The hairless (hr) and rhino (hr^rh) mutations are autosomal recessive allelic mutations that map to mouse Chromosome 14. Both hairless and rhino mice have a number of skin and nail abnormalities and develop a striking form of total alopecia at approximately 3–4 weeks of age. The molecular basis of the hairless mouse phenotype was previously found to be the result of a murine leukemia proviral insertion in intron 6 of thehrgene that resulted in aberrant splicing. In this study, we report a 2-bp substitution in exon 4 of thehrgene in a second allele ofhr,rhino 8J (hr^rh-8J), leading to a nonsense mutation. These findings document the molecular basis of the rhino phenotype for the first time and suggest that rhino is a functional knock-out of thehrgene.     

The elephant problem–an alternative hypothesis

Published hypotheses to account for habitat changes wrought by elephants begin from the assumption that elephant-forest systems possess a stable equilibrium point. The ‘elephant problem’ is conceived as a displacement of this equilibrium by man. Controversy centres around which human activities caused the dislocation of equilibrium and by which mechanisms these activities resulted in local high densities of the elephant Loxodonta africana. A study on elephant-forest relationships in the Luangwa Valley of Zambia casts doubt upon the basic assumption of these hypotheses and an alternative hypothesis is therefore offered. It begins from the opposite assumption–that there is no attainable natural equilibrium between elephants and forests in eastern and southern Africa. The relationship is viewed instead as a stable limit cycle in which elephants increase while thinning the forest and decline until reaching a low density that allows resurgence of the forest. This in turn triggers an increase of elephants and the cycle repeats. The period of the cycle, if the hypothesis is correct, is in the order of 200 years in the Luangwa Valley. The activities of man can impose an artificial equilibrium on the system such that trees and elephants are trapped at the low density phase of the cycle. When interference is relaxed, as with the conversion of an area to a national park, the cyclic relationship reasserts. The parameters of a system possessing a stable limit cycle need not differ in kind or interrelationship from those of a system with a stable equilibrium. Whether one or other outcome manifests may depend only on the numerical values of the parameters. If the elephant-forest system is characterized by a stable limit cycle the period and amplitude should change along a climatic gradient and may contract to a stable equilibrium in some climatic zones. A set of predictions is offered to facilitate rejection of the hypothesis.     

Hunting behavior and strategies of the Valley Bisa in Zambia

This article describes the hunting tactics and prey selection of the Valley Bisa, a matrilineal, subsistence-oriented society in the Luangwa Valley of Zambia. Although Valley Bisa hunters explain their behavior in their own idioms, many of their tactics, including the stimuli for and timing of hunts, the circular morphology of their hunting patterns, and randomized searches, appear functionally related to the behavior and ecology of their prey. The effects of outlawing traditional harvest techniques and the imposition and enforcement of external constraints on Valley Bisa hunting patterns are discussed. Data on habitats, density of cover, wind direction, species, and initial distance to prey from 50 hunts, in which 16 mammals were killed, are compared and related to success and failure of stalking attempts. Graphs, comparing the numbers of observations for each of four variables with the frequency of stalking attempts, illustrate the cultural style of predation for this group of hunters.This article was initially presented as part of my contribution to a graduate seminar, Public Management of the African Environment, African Studies Program, Indiana University, October 9, 1975. I wish to thank Professor J. Gus Liebenow for extending the invitation to participate in this program.     

A study on the postrelease behaviour and habitat preferences of black rhinos (Diceros bicornis) reintroduced into a fenced reserve in Namibia

Translocations and reintroductions are key elements for the population management of the critically endangered black rhino (Diceros bicornis, Linnaeus, 1758). In this study, we investigated the postrelease behaviour and habitat preferences of a black rhino starter group (n = 4) on the individual level. The animals were reintroduced to a fenced game reserve (87 km²) in North‐Central Namibia 1 year prior to our study. We used camera traps and very high frequency (VHF) radiotelemetry to examine the animals' temporal and spatial behaviour over a period of 4 months at transition between wet and dry seasons. Our results underline a peak in drinking activity and waterhole visits occurring between 7 p.m. and 8 p.m. We found a shift in intensity in drinking activity during the period of the study. Satellite‐based woody cover estimations only suggest positive correlations between the density of woody cover and favoured black rhino habitat types. Although the area seems suitable to facilitate breeding success of this starter group, it does not support a self‐sustaining population. However, black rhinos were already successfully reintroduced to several additional fenced reserves in this region. The selective opening of fences in the future could help to enable genetic exchange between currently isolated groups of rhinos.     

Standardising Home Range Studies for Improved Management of the Critically Endangered Black Rhinoceros

Comparisons of recent estimations of home range sizes for the critically endangered black rhinoceros in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), South Africa, with historical estimates led reports of a substantial (54%) increase, attributed to over-stocking and habitat deterioration that has far-reaching implications for rhino conservation. Other reports, however, suggest the increase is more likely an artefact caused by applying various home range estimators to non-standardised datasets. We collected 1939 locations of 25 black rhino over six years (2004–2009) to estimate annual home ranges and evaluate the hypothesis that they have increased in size. A minimum of 30 and 25 locations were required for accurate 95% MCP estimation of home range of adult rhinos, during the dry and wet seasons respectively. Forty and 55 locations were required for adult female and male annual MCP home ranges, respectively, and 30 locations were necessary for estimating 90% bivariate kernel home ranges accurately. Average annual 95% bivariate kernel home ranges were 20.4 ± 1.2 km², 53 ±1.9% larger than 95% MCP ranges (9.8 km² ± 0.9). When home range techniques used during the late-1960s in HiP were applied to our dataset, estimates were similar, indicating that ranges have not changed substantially in 50 years. Inaccurate, non-standardised, home range estimates and their comparison have the potential to mislead black rhino population management. We recommend that more care be taken to collect adequate numbers of rhino locations within standardized time periods (i.e., season or year) and that the comparison of home ranges estimated using dissimilar procedures be avoided. Home range studies of black rhino have been data deficient and procedurally inconsistent. Standardisation of methods is required.     

The composition and function of all‐male herds of Thornicroft's giraffe,Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti,in Zambia

Temporary all‐male social groups are formed in a number of animal species. We examined 34 years of data collected from 36 male Thornicroft's giraffe in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia, to test a set of predictions related to five possible functions of all‐male herds (predator protection, practicing aggressive skills, prolonging life, nutritional demands and resource learning). We found that all‐male herds were significantly smaller than mixed‐sex herds, usually contained a mature bull, and were not dependent upon season or habitat. Dyadic associations between males in single sex herds were quite weak, with <25% of potential male dyads sighted together in an all‐male herd. Our data are best explained as a resource learning strategy adopted by males to obtain more extensive knowledge about the habitat, including both food and female distribution. However, other benefits in the form of predator protection, dietary intake and sharpening competitive skills for future contests over estrous females also seem to mediate formation of giraffe all‐male groups. We conclude that the primary advantage of roaming in all‐male herds changes during the life history of males.     

Disruption of Rhino Demography by Poachers May Lead to Population Declines in Kruger National Park,South Africa

The onslaught on the World’s rhinoceroses continues despite numerous initiatives aimed at curbing it. When losses due to poaching exceed birth rates, declining rhino populations result. We used previously published estimates and growth rates for black rhinos (2008) and white rhinos (2010) together with known poaching trends at the time to predict population sizes and poaching rates in Kruger National Park, South Africa for 2013. Kruger is a stronghold for the south-eastern black rhino and southern white rhino. Counting rhinos on 878 blocks 3x3 km in size using helicopters, estimating availability bias and collating observer and detectability biases allowed estimates using the Jolly’s estimator. The exponential escalation in number of rhinos poached per day appears to have slowed. The black rhino estimate of 414 individuals (95% confidence interval: 343-487) was lower than the predicted 835 individuals (95% CI: 754-956). The white rhino estimate of 8,968 individuals (95% CI: 8,394-9,564) overlapped with the predicted 9,417 individuals (95% CI: 7,698-11,183). Density- and rainfall-dependent responses in birth- and death rates of white rhinos provide opportunities to offset anticipated poaching effects through removals of rhinos from high density areas to increase birth and survival rates. Biological management of rhinos, however, need complimentary management of the poaching threat as present poaching trends predict detectable declines in white rhino abundances by 2018. Strategic responses such as anti-poaching that protect supply from illegal harvesting, reducing demand, and increasing supply commonly require crime network disruption as a first step complimented by providing options for alternative economies in areas abutting protected areas.