基于遥感和过程模型的亚洲东部陆地生态系统初级生产力分布特征

利用美国环境预测中心的再分析气象资料和由GIMMS NDVI 资料生成的叶面积指数对BEPS生态模型进行驱动,模拟分析了2000-2005年亚洲东部地区总初级生产力（GPP）和总净初级生产力（NPP）的时空变化特征.在进行区域模拟计算前,使用15个站点不同生态系统的GPP观测数据及1300个样点的NPP观测数据对模型进行验证.结果表明： BEPS模型能较好地模拟不同生态系统的GPP和NPP变化,模拟的GPP与观测数据之间的R2为0.86～0.99,均方根误差（RMSE）为0.2～1.2 g C·m-2·d-1;BEPS模拟值能够解释78%的年NPP变化,其RMSE为118 g C·m-2·a-1.2000-2005年,亚洲东部地区GPP和NPP总量平均值分别为21.7和10.5 Pg C·a-1.NPP和GPP具有相似的时空变化特征.研究期间,NPP总量的变化范围为10.2～10.7 Pg C·a-1, 变异系数为2.2%.NPP由东南向西北显著减少,高值区〖JP2〗（>1000 g C·m-2·a-1）出现在东南亚海岛国家,我国的西北干旱沙漠地区为低值区（<30 g C·m-2·a-1）,〖JP〗其空间格局主要由气候因子决定.不同国家的人均NPP差异很大,其中,蒙古最高,达70217 kg C·a-1,远高于中国的人均NPP（1921 kg C·a-1）,印度的人均NPP最小,为757 kg C·a-1.     

Impact of different ERA reanalysis data on GPP simulation

The performance of the terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs) is limited by the accuracy of climate forcing data. As the reanalysis products of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), ERA-Interim and ERA5 data are widely used in the simulation of terrestrial carbon budgets and reveal their responses to climate change. However, the discrepancy between simulated carbon budgets driven by ERA-Interim and ERA5 on a global scale has not been evaluated. In this study, driven by ERA-Interim and ERA5, we conducted two simulations by a TBM, BEPS (Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator), to investigate the differences of simulated Gross primary productivity (GPP) in temporal trends and spatial patterns and to identify the differences in climate factors resulted in the spreads of simulated GPPs. We found that by 2015, the relatively stable difference of simulated GPP by ERA-Interim and ERA5 was about 3.55 Pg C yr⁻¹. Since 2016, the differences of simulated GPP increased gradually and peaked in the last year of our simulation in 2018 at 13.16 Pg C yr⁻¹. This significant difference in GPP was due to the changes of GPP in the Amazon Basin, Congo Basin and South Asia, where tropical forests and tropical savannahs & grasslands were widely distributed. In these regions, the GPP of ERA5 in total was at least 3.0 Pg C yr⁻¹ lower than that of ERA-Interim after 2016. The difference of GPP in such regions was the main reason why ERA5 and ERA-Interim GPP showed different interannual variability. And less precipitation and higher temperature of ERA5 in tropical regions mainly results in the reduction of GPP compared with the results driven by ERA-Interim. Our results highlight challenges in using ERA5 and ERA-Interim to evaluate responses of ecosystem to climate change and provide implications for reducing the uncertainty of climate forcing data in simulating terrestrial carbon cycle.     

Simulations of a protein crystal: explicit treatment of crystallization conditions links theory and experiment in the streptavidin-biotin complex

A 250 ns molecular dynamics simulation of the biotin-liganded streptavidin crystal lattice, including cryoprotectant molecules and crystallization salts, is compared to a 250 ns simulation of the lattice solvated with pure water. The simulation using detailed crystallization conditions preserves the initial X-ray structure better than the simulation using pure water, even though the protein molecules display comparable mobility in either simulation. Atomic fluctuations computed from the simulation with crystallization conditions closely reproduce fluctuations derived from experimental temperature factors (correlation coefficient of 0.88, omitting two N-terminal residues with very high experimental B-factors). In contrast, fluctuations calculated from the simulation with pure water were less accurate, particularly for two of the streptavidin loops exposed to solvent in the crystal lattice. Finally, we obtain good agreement between the water and cryoprotectant densities obtained from the simulated crystallization conditions and the electron density due to solvent molecules in the X-ray structure. Our results suggest that detailed lattice simulations with realistic crystallization conditions can be used to assess potential function parameters, validate simulation protocols, and obtain valuable insights that solution-phase simulations do not easily provide. We anticipate that this will prove to be a powerful strategy for molecular dynamics simulations of biomolecules.     

遥感GPP模型在中亚干旱区4个典型生态系统的适用性评价

总初级生产力(GPP)是全球生态系统碳循环的重要组成部分,对全球气候变化有重要影响。目前有多种遥感模型可以模拟总初级生产力,比较不同遥感模型在中亚干旱区上的适用性对推进全球干旱区碳收支估算具有重要意义。基于涡度协相关技术观测的四个地面站数据验证MOD17、VODCA2、VPM、TG、SANIRv五种模型的模拟精度。结果表明：(1)基于光能利用率理论的MOD17、VPM模型模拟咸海荒漠植被和阜康荒漠植被GPP的精度最高(R²分别为0.52和0.80),但在模拟草地、农田生态系统生产力时存在较明显的低估(RE>20%);基于植被指数的遥感模型TG模型、SANIRv模型模拟巴尔喀什湖草地生态系统和乌兰乌苏农田生态系统GPP的精度最高(R²分别为0.91和0.81),同时模拟值与实测值的相对误差也较低;基于微波的VODCA2模型模拟各生态系统生产力的效果最差。(2)水分亏缺是限制植被GPP的主要因素,因此是否合理考虑水分胁迫是影响GPP模型在中亚干旱区适用性的重要因素。研究揭示了遥感GPP模型在中亚干旱区的应用潜力,为推进全球植被碳通量的准确估...     

A simple model of the eco-hydrodynamics of the epilimnion of Lake Tanganyika

1. The ecosystem response of Lake Tanganyika was studied using a four-component, nutrient–phytoplankton–zooplankton–detritus, phosphorus-based ecosystem model coupled to a nonlinear, reduced-gravity, circulation model. The ecosystem model, an improved version of the earlier eco-hydrodynamics model developed for Lake Tanganyika, was used to estimate the annual primary production of Lake Tanganyika and its spatial and temporal variability. The simulations were driven with the National Centres for Environmental Protection (NCEP) records for winds and solar radiation forcing.
2. The simulated annual cycles of the four ecosystem variables and the daily net primary production were compared with the observations. The comparison showed that simulations reproduced realistically the general features of the annual cycles of epilimnial phosphate, net primary production and plankton dynamics.
3. The climatic simulations for the years 1970–2006 yielded a daily averaged integrated upper layer net production ranging from 0.11 to 1.78 g C m⁻² day⁻¹ and daily averaged chlorophyll- a (chl- a ) from 0.16 to 4.3 mg m⁻³. Although the nutrient concentrations in the epilimnion during the strong wind years were high, the net production was low, which is partly because of the greater vertical mixing, produced by strong winds, exposing the phytoplankton to low light conditions in deeper waters. The simulated annual net production and chl- a agreed quite well with observed production available in the literature.
4. We envisage using this model to predict the future scenarios of primary productivity in the lake.     

Structure and internal dynamics of the bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor in aqueous solution from long-time molecular dynamics simulations

Structural and dynamic properties of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) in aqueous solution are investigated using two molecular dynamics (MD) simulations: one of 1.4 ns length and one of 0.8 ns length in which atom-atom distance bounds derived from NMR spectroscopy are included in the potential energy function to make the trajectory satisfy these experimental data more closely. The simulated properties of BPTI are compared with crystal and solution structures of BPTI, and found to be in agreement with the available experimental data. The best agreement with experiment was obtained when atom-atom distance restraints were applied in a time-averaged manner in the simulation. The polypeptide segments found to be most flexible in the MD simulations coincide closely with those showing differences between the crystal and solution structures of BPTI. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Impact of derived global weather data on simulated crop yields

Crop simulation models can be used to estimate impact of current and future climates on crop yields and food security, but require long‐term historical daily weather data to obtain robust simulations. In many regions where crops are grown, daily weather data are not available. Alternatively, gridded weather databases (GWD) with complete terrestrial coverage are available, typically derived from: (i) global circulation computer models; (ii) interpolated weather station data; or (iii) remotely sensed surface data from satellites. The present study's objective is to evaluate capacity of GWDs to simulate crop yield potential (Yp) or water‐limited yield potential (Yw), which can serve as benchmarks to assess impact of climate change scenarios on crop productivity and land use change. Three GWDs (CRU, NCEP/DOE, and NASA POWER data) were evaluated for their ability to simulate Yp and Yw of rice in China, USA maize, and wheat in Germany. Simulations of Yp and Yw based on recorded daily data from well‐maintained weather stations were taken as the control weather data (CWD). Agreement between simulations of Yp or Yw based on CWD and those based on GWD was poor with the latter having strong bias and large root mean square errors (RMSEs) that were 26–72% of absolute mean yield across locations and years. In contrast, simulated Yp or Yw using observed daily weather data from stations in the NOAA database combined with solar radiation from the NASA‐POWER database were in much better agreement with Yp and Yw simulated with CWD (i.e. little bias and an RMSE of 12–19% of the absolute mean). We conclude that results from studies that rely on GWD to simulate agricultural productivity in current and future climates are highly uncertain. An alternative approach would impose a climate scenario on location‐specific observed daily weather databases combined with an appropriate upscaling method.     

Molecular dynamics modeling of the sub-THz vibrational absorption of thioredoxin from <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. coli</Emphasis>

Sub-terahertz (THz) vibrational modes of the protein thioredoxin in a water environment were simulated using molecular dynamics (MD) in order to find the conditions needed for simulation convergence, improve the correlation between experimental and simulated absorption frequencies, and ultimately enhance the predictive capabilities of computational modeling. Thioredoxin from E. coli was used as a model molecule for protocol development and to optimize the simulation parameters. The empirically parameterized software packages Amber 8 and 10 were used in this work. Using atomic trajectories from the constant energy and volume MD simulations, thioredoxin’s sub-THz vibrational spectra and absorption coefficients were calculated in a quasi-harmonic approximation. An optimal production run length ∼100 ps was found, in agreement with experimental data on thioredoxin relaxation dynamics. At the same time, a new procedure was developed for averaging correlation matrices of atomic coordinates in MD simulations. In particular, the open source package ptraj was edited to improve a matrix-analyzing function. Averaging only six matrices gave much more consistent results, with absorption peak intensities exceeding those from the individual spectra and a rather good correlation between simulated vibrational frequencies and experimental data.     

Investigation of Water Dynamics and the Effect of Evapotranspiration on Grain Yield of Rainfed Wheat and Barley under a Mediterranean Environment: A Modelling Approach

Agro-hydrological models have increasingly become useful and powerful tools in optimizing water and fertilizer application, and in studying the environmental consequences. Accurate prediction of water dynamics in such models is essential for models to produce reasonable results. In this study, detailed simulations were performed for water dynamics of rainfed winter wheat and barley grown under a Mediterranean climate over a 10-year period. The model employed (Yang et al., 2009. J. Hydrol., 370, 177-190) uses easily available agronomic data, and takes into consideration of all key soil and plant processes in controlling water dynamics in the soil-crop system, including the dynamics of root growth. The water requirement for crop growth was calculated according to the FAO56, and the soil hydraulic properties were estimated using peto-transfer functions (PTFs) based on soil physical properties and soil organic matter content. Results show that the simulated values of soil water content at the depths of 15, 45 and 75 cm agreed with the measurements well with the root of the mean squared errors of 0.027 cm³ cm^-3 and the model agreement index of 0.875. The simulated seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) ranged from 208 to 388 mm, and grain yield was found to correlate with the simulated seasonal ET in a linear manner within the studied ET range. The simulated rates of grain yield increase were 17.3 and 23.7 kg ha^-l for every mm of water evapotranspired for wheat and barley, respectively. The good agreement of soil water content between measurement and simulation and the simulated relationships between grain yield and seasonal ET supported by the data in the literature indicates that the model performed well in modelling water dynamics for the studied soil-crop system, and therefore has the potential to be applied reliably and widely in precision agriculture. Finally, a two-staged approach using inverse modelling techniques to further improve model performance was discussed.     

The Living Planet Index: using species population time series to track trends in biodiversity

The Living Planet Index was developed to measure the changing state of the world's biodiversity over time. It uses time-series data to calculate average rates of change in a large number of populations of terrestrial, freshwater and marine vertebrate species. The dataset contains about 3000 population time series for over 1100 species. Two methods of calculating the index are outlined: the chain method and a method based on linear modelling of log-transformed data. The dataset is analysed to compare the relative representation of biogeographic realms, ecoregional biomes, threat status and taxonomic groups among species contributing to the index. The two methods show very similar results: terrestrial species declined on average by 25% from 1970 to 2000. Birds and mammals are over-represented in comparison with other vertebrate classes, and temperate species are over-represented compared with tropical species, but there is little difference in representation between threatened and non-threatened species. Some of the problems arising from over-representation are reduced by the way in which the index is calculated. It may be possible to reduce this further by post-stratification and weighting, but new information would first need to be collected for data-poor classes, realms and biomes.     

Biome-BGC模型模拟阔叶红松林碳水通量的参数敏感性检验和不确定性分析

生态过程模型的发展为研究者在长时间序列和区域尺度的研究提供了便利, 但模型模拟的准确性受到模型自身结构、模型参数估计合理性的影响。敏感性分析能够定量或定性筛选出对模型模拟结果影响较大的敏感参数, 是模型参数校准过程中的重要工具, 也是建模和应用的先决条件。该文以阔叶红松林为研究对象, 采用全局敏感性分析方法——傅里叶幅度灵敏度检验扩展法(EFAST)对Biome-BGC模型的生理生态参数进行了敏感性分析, 分别分析了红松(Pinus koraiensis)和阔叶树的净初级生产力(NPP)、蒸散(ET)对参数变化的敏感性。结果表明: (1)模拟红松NPP的不确定性高于阔叶树, 但二者的模拟ET的不确定性均较小。阔叶树的NPP和ET对生理生态参数的敏感性总体上都小于红松。(2)无论是红松、阔叶或其他植被类型, 模拟NPP均表现出对叶片碳氮比、细根碳氮比、比叶面积(SLA)和冠层截留系数的敏感性, 这4个参数的高敏感性主要是由模型自身结构所决定的, 与植被类型和研究地区的关系较小。对模拟ET而言, 细根与叶片碳分配比、新茎与新叶碳分配比和SLA均是影响红松和阔叶树ET的敏感参数, 但红松ET主要受参数与参数间的二阶或多阶交互作用的间接影响, 而阔叶树ET则主要是受到敏感参数直接效应的影响。(3)除了上述影响红松和阔叶树碳水通量的共性参数外, 诸如核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸羧化酶中叶氮含量、叶片与细根周转率、所有叶面积与投影叶面积之比等也是对模拟结果有影响的重要参数, 但是其敏感程度随物种不同和研究区不同而不同, 所以这类参数可以根据具体情况进行参数本地化, 对于其他不敏感参数则可以采用模型缺省值。     

Testing parameter sensitivities and uncertainty analysis of Biome-BGC model in simulating carbon and water fluxes in broadleaved-Korean pine forests

生态过程模型的发展为研究者在长时间序列和区域尺度的研究提供了便利, 但模型模拟的准确性受到模型自身结构、模型参数估计合理性的影响。敏感性分析能够定量或定性筛选出对模型模拟结果影响较大的敏感参数, 是模型参数校准过程中的重要工具, 也是建模和应用的先决条件。该文以阔叶红松林为研究对象, 采用全局敏感性分析方法——傅里叶幅度灵敏度检验扩展法(EFAST)对Biome-BGC模型的生理生态参数进行了敏感性分析, 分别分析了红松(Pinus koraiensis)和阔叶树的净初级生产力(NPP)、蒸散(ET)对参数变化的敏感性。结果表明: (1)模拟红松NPP的不确定性高于阔叶树, 但二者的模拟ET的不确定性均较小。阔叶树的NPP和ET对生理生态参数的敏感性总体上都小于红松。(2)无论是红松、阔叶或其他植被类型, 模拟NPP均表现出对叶片碳氮比、细根碳氮比、比叶面积(SLA)和冠层截留系数的敏感性, 这4个参数的高敏感性主要是由模型自身结构所决定的, 与植被类型和研究地区的关系较小。对模拟ET而言, 细根与叶片碳分配比、新茎与新叶碳分配比和SLA均是影响红松和阔叶树ET的敏感参数, 但红松ET主要受参数与参数间的二阶或多阶交互作用的间接影响, 而阔叶树ET则主要是受到敏感参数直接效应的影响。(3)除了上述影响红松和阔叶树碳水通量的共性参数外, 诸如核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸羧化酶中叶氮含量、叶片与细根周转率、所有叶面积与投影叶面积之比等也是对模拟结果有影响的重要参数, 但是其敏感程度随物种不同和研究区不同而不同, 所以这类参数可以根据具体情况进行参数本地化, 对于其他不敏感参数则可以采用模型缺省值。     

Exploring the spatiotemporal dynamics of habitat suitability to improve conservation management of a vulnerable plant species

Ongoing declines in biodiversity caused by global environmental changes call for adaptive conservation management, including the assessment of habitat suitability spatiotemporal dynamics potentially affecting species persistence. Remote sensing (RS) provides a wide-range of satellite-based environmental variables that can be fed into species distribution models (SDMs) to investigate species-environment relations and forecast responses to change. We address the spatiotemporal dynamics of species’ habitat suitability at the landscape level by combining multi-temporal RS data with SDMs for analysing inter-annual habitat suitability dynamics. We implemented this framework with a vulnerable plant species (Veronica micrantha), by combining SDMs with a time-series of RS-based metrics of vegetation functioning related to primary productivity, seasonality, phenology and actual evapotranspiration. Besides RS variables, predictors related to landscape structure, soils and wildfires were ranked and combined through multi-model inference (MMI). To assess recent dynamics, a habitat suitability time-series was generated through model hindcasting. MMI highlighted the strong predictive ability of RS variables related to primary productivity and water availability for explaining the test-species distribution, along with soil, wildfire regime and landscape composition. The habitat suitability time-series revealed the effects of short-term land cover changes and inter-annual variability in climatic conditions. Multi-temporal SDMs further improved predictions, benefiting from RS time-series. Overall, results emphasize the integration of landscape attributes related to function, composition and spatial configuration for improving the explanation of ecological patterns. Moreover, coupling SDMs with RS functional metrics may provide early-warnings of future environmental changes potentially impacting habitat suitability. Applications discussed include the improvement of biodiversity monitoring and conservation strategies.     

A comparison of static and dynamic optimization muscle force predictions during wheelchair propulsion

The primary purpose of this study was to compare static and dynamic optimization muscle force and work predictions during the push phase of wheelchair propulsion. A secondary purpose was to compare the differences in predicted shoulder and elbow kinetics and kinematics and handrim forces. The forward dynamics simulation minimized differences between simulated and experimental data (obtained from 10 manual wheelchair users) and muscle co-contraction. For direct comparison between models, the shoulder and elbow muscle moment arms and net joint moments from the dynamic optimization were used as inputs into the static optimization routine. RMS errors between model predictions were calculated to quantify model agreement. There was a wide range of individual muscle force agreement that spanned from poor (26.4% F_max error in the middle deltoid) to good (6.4% F_max error in the anterior deltoid) in the prime movers of the shoulder. The predicted muscle forces from the static optimization were sufficient to create the appropriate motion and joint moments at the shoulder for the push phase of wheelchair propulsion, but showed deviations in the elbow moment, pronation–supination motion and hand rim forces. These results suggest the static approach does not produce results similar enough to be a replacement for forward dynamics simulations, and care should be taken in choosing the appropriate method for a specific task and set of constraints. Dynamic optimization modeling approaches may be required for motions that are greatly influenced by muscle activation dynamics or that require significant co-contraction.     

模拟植物多样性的大尺度分布：从气候和生产力推知的一种可能性（英文）

 鉴于全球植被/生物群区在现状气候条件下已经被很好地模拟并在未来气候变化情景下得到很好的预测,人们有必要和急需模拟大尺度（区域、洲际至全球）植物多样性的分布格局。陆地生物圈模型的发展（从生物地理模型和生物地球化学模型到动态和耦合的植被模型）,气候-生物多样性相互关系和生产力-生物多样性相互关系研究成果的增多,以及基于现有生物多样性调查的全球生物多样性理论和经验制图的进步,加大了模拟大尺度植物多样性格局的可能性。本文的目的是：综述当前气候-生物多样性相互关系和生产力-生物多样性相互关系的主要研究成果以及大尺度     

Mean field stochastic boundary molecular dynamics simulation of a phospholipid in a membrane

Computer simulations of phospholipid membranes have been carried out by using a combined approach of molecular and stochastic dynamics and a mean field based on the Marcelja model. First, the single-chain mean field simulations of Pastor et al. [(1988) J. Chem. Phys. 89, 1112-1127] were extended to a complete dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine molecule; a 102-ns Langevin dynamics simulation is presented and compared with experiment. Subsequently, a hexagonally packed seven-lipid array was simulated with Langevin dynamics and a mean field at the boundary and with molecular dynamics (and no mean field) in the center. This hybrid method, mean field stochastic boundary molecular dynamics, reduces bias introduced by the mean field and eliminates the need for periodic boundary conditions. As a result, simulations extending to tens of nanoseconds may be carried out by using a relatively small number of molecules to model the membrane environment. Preliminary results of a 20-ns simulation are reported here. A wide range of motions, including overall reorientation with a nanosecond decay time, is observed in both simulations, and good agreement with NMR, IR, and neutron diffraction data is found.     

Structural and dynamic properties of liquid alkali metals: molecular dynamics

Molecular dynamics simulations in the canonical ensemble have been performed to calculate structural and transport properties of liquid alkali metals. The alkali metals considered in this work were Na, K, Rb and Cs. Two Yukawa-type potentials were employed as the interaction law among particles. This function is written in terms of two adjustment parameters which make possible tuning the softness of the potential core and the range of the attractive part. The radial distribution functions and transport properties such as self-diffusion and shear viscosity, were calculated in a thermodynamic state near the melting point. The radial distribution function calculated for each alkali metal was compared with previous simulation results where a more elaborated potential was employed. From this comparison we found an excellent agreement. Our results for transport properties were also compared with the available experimental data and a good agreement was found.     

陕北黄土高原植被净初级生产力的估算

基于MODIS和地面气象数据,利用改进的CASA模型,模拟分析了2005年陕北黄土高原地区的植被净初级生产力(NPP)及其时空分布.结果表明:1)根据生态生理过程模型针对不同土地覆被类型选择不同的月平均最大光能利用率,比传统CASA模型中使用固定的全球月平均最大光能利用率进行NPP估算,更符合陕北黄土高原地区的实际情况;在估算植被参数时引入植被覆盖分类,以及利用陕北黄土高原2005年时序NDVI进行土地覆被分类的同时,结合1:100万中国植被图和实地调查情况对分类结果进行修正,可提高分类的精度,从而提高模型估算的精度.2)通过不同模型之间和与陕北部分地区实际调查数据进行比较,显示改进后的CASA模型对区域陆地植被NPP的模拟效果较好,可应用于陕北黄土高原乃至周边地区NPP的计算中.3)2005年陕北黄土高原植被净第一性生产量估计值为4.76×10~(13) g C,约占全国总NPP的1.5%,植被平均NPP为447.3 g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1),高于1992-2000年全国陆地NPP平均值323.8 g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1).4)在NPP的空间分布上,总体趋势是由东南向西北递减,其中最高值出现在东南部的黄龙山次生林区(1087g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1));西北部的荒漠植被覆盖度极低,平均NPP仅为205.0 g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1).5)陕北黄土高原NPP的季节变化明显,其中4月中旬至10月中旬6个月生长季时间里的NPP可占到全年的91.5%,而7月中旬至8月中旬间该区的净初级生产力达到年内的极大值,可占全年的37.8%.

Abstract：

Based on the data from MODIS (Moderate-resolution Imaging Speetroradiometer) and meteorological observatories, and by using improved CASA (Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach) model, the vegetation net primary productivity (NPP) and its spatiotemporal distribution on the North Shaanxi Loess Plateau in 2005 were simulated and analyzed. Comparing with the traditional CASA model which only uses a universal mean annual maximum light use efficiency (LUE), the estimated regional NPP by the improved CASA model was more precise, because this improved model used the LUE parameters of different vegetation covers. The detailed land cover classifica-tion also contributed to the increase of the precision via introducing the time-series Normalized Different Vegetation Index (NDVI) and ground survey data to modify and adjust the original clas-sification system based on vegetation map (1: 1000000). The testing of the simulation results from different models with the ground survey data in North Shaanxi showed that the estimation by the modified CASA model was much closer to the real survey data, implying the potential practi-cal significance of this model in estimating the vegetation NPP in North Shaanxi Loess Plateau and its adjacent areas. In 2005, the NPP in North Shaanxi was estimated as 4. 76×1013 g C, ac-counting for about 1.5% of China' s terrestrial total NPP, and the mean NPP was 447.3 g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1), being much higher than that of China' s terrestrial vegetation (323.8 g C·m~(-2)·a~(-1)) in 1982-2000. The spatial distribution pattern of the vegetation NPP showed an apparently declining trend from the southeast to the northwest, with the highest value of 1087 g C·m~(-2)a~(-1) occurred in the broadleaved-and conifer-mixed forests of Huanglong Mountain in southeast part of the region. The mean NPP of desert vegetation in the whole region was the lowest, only about 205.0 g C·m~(-2) ·a~(-1). An obvious seasonal variation of the NPP was observed. The NPP in growth season (from April to October) took about 91.5% of the total in the year, and the peak occurred in mid-July to mid-August, amounting to 37.8% of the total.     

Simulation of quadrupedal locomotion using a rigid body model

Locomotion of the horse is simulated using a mathematical model based on rigid body dynamics. A general method to generate the equations of motion for a two-dimensional rigid body model with an arbitrary number of hinge joints is presented and a numerical solution method, restricted to tree-structured models, is described. Joint movements originating from muscular forces or moments are simulated, but the method also allows that parts of the model follow strictly the pattern of kinematic data. Moment-generators with first-order linear feedback were used as a rotational muscle-equivalent. Ground-hoof interaction forces are approximated by a viscoelastic model and pseudo-Coulomb friction in vertical and horizontal directions respectively. Results of model simulations are compared to experimentally recorded data. Subsequently, adjustments are made to improve the agreement between simulation and experimental results.     

CLM3.0-DGVM中植物叶面积指数与气候因子的时空关系

作为陆面模型里植被的特征量,叶面积值数（LAI）和植被覆盖度在陆地-大气相互作用的相关研究里被广泛应用。LAI的模拟是动态植被模式（DVM）的核心任务之一,需要对模拟的LAI与气候因子间的时空关系进行评估以更好的了解模式性能以及理解植被-大气反馈过程。用1950—1999年的气象数据驱动通用陆面模式的动态植被模式（CLM3.0-DGVM）模拟得到的全球潜在植被的LAI和2001—2003年MODIS观测资料衍生出的LAI数据进行对比,并在此基础上研究当前气候条件下不同植物功能型（PFT）的LAI与不同气候因子在年际尺度上的时空关系,包括运用Moran系数理论分析空间自相关性、运用逐步回归算法构建空间最优一阶线性回归方程、分析模式LAI与气候因子间的滞后相关性。研究表明：1）以MODIS衍生数据作参照,改进后的CLM3.0-DGVM能较好地模拟不同PFTs的LAI年最大值的空间分布型,但是在物候模拟即LAI的季节循环上存在不足;2）植物LAI的分布具有正的空间自相关性。对潜在植物LAI和气候因子进行拟合时不同气候因子对不同PFTs的方差贡献不一样,一般降水最大、风速最小。这反映了陆地生态系统和气候间复杂的相互关系;3）模式模拟的LAI和气候因子有显著的1～2年的滞后相关,其中光照、降水和LAI的滞后相关性波动较大,而温度、比湿的较小,风速的不明显。这些基于CLM3.0-DGVM的结论在自然界的植物–气候相互作用系统中具有普遍意义：不同地区不同植物受不同气候因子的影响不一样;找出不同PFT的主要气候影响因子和理解其中最关键的生物物理和生物化学过程是至关重要的。进一步工作需要用更精确和更高分辨率的气候数据以及局地观测的LAI对DGVM做评估,同时DGVM本身也需要继续改进（例如加入农作物和灌溉过程的模拟）。