Patterns and processes in the evolutionary history of parrotfishes (Family Labridae)

Phylogenetic reconstruction of the evolutionary relationships among 61 of the 70 species of the parrotfish genera Chlorurus and Scarus (Family Labridae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences retrieved 15 well‐supported clades with mid Pliocene/Pleistocene diversification. Twenty‐two reciprocally monophyletic sister‐species pairs were identified: 64% were allopatric, and the remainder were sympatric. Age of divergence was similar for allopatric and sympatric species pairs. Sympatric sister pairs displayed greater divergence in morphology, ecology, and sexually dimorphic colour patterns than did allopatric pairs, suggesting that both genetic drift in allopatric species pairs and ecologically adaptive divergence between members of sympatric pairs have played a role in diversification. Basal species typically have small geographical ranges and are restricted to geographically and ecologically peripheral reef habitats. We found little evidence that a single dominant process has driven diversification, nor did we detect a pattern of discrete, sequential stages of diversification in relation to habitat, ecology, and reproductive biology. The evolution of Chlorurus and Scarus has been complex, involving a number of speciation processes. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 107 , 529–557.     

Post‐zygotic hybrid viability in sympatric species pairs: a case study from European lampreys

Ecological speciation mechanisms are widely assumed to play an important role in the early stages of divergence between incipient species, and this especially true of fishes. In the present study, we tested explicitly for post‐zygotic barriers to gene flow between a sympatric, recently diverged lamprey species pair that likely arose through ecological divergence. Experimental in vitro hybridization between anadromous parasitic Lampetra fluviatilis and resident nonparasitic Lampetra planeri resulted in a high proportion of embryos capable of attaining the burrowing pro‐larval stage, strongly indicating no post‐zygotic barriers to gene flow between these species. A sympatric, locally‐adapted resident parasitic form of L. fluviatilis was also found to successfully hybridize with both members of this species pair. The consequences of these findings are discussed in the context of lamprey speciation. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 108 , 378–383.     

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Podostemaceae: implications for taxonomy of major groups

The river‐weed family Podostemaceae (c. 300 species in c. 54 genera) shows a number of morphological innovations to be adapted to its unusual aquatic habitat, and its unique or rare bauplan features have been reflected in the traditional (i.e. non‐molecular) classification recognizing numerous monotypic or oligospecific genera. The infrasubfamilial relationships of many genera remained unclear. The present study used molecular phylogenetic analysis of matK sequences for 657 samples (c. 132 species/c. 43 genera). The family was traditionally divided into three subfamilies (Podostemoideae, Tristichoideae and Weddellinoideae). American Podostemoideae were shown to be polyphyletic and divided into four clades, i.e. Ceratolacis, Diamantina, Podostemum and all other genera. Among the podostemoid clades, Diamantina was the first branching clade and a clade comprising Mourera and the Apinagia subclade was then sister to the remainder of the New World and Old World Podostemoideae with low statistic supports. The Old World Podostemoideae comprised four monophyletic clades, i.e. two African clades, one Madagascan clade and one Asian clade, although the relationships among these clades and American Ceratolacis and Podostemum were poorly resolved. African Podostemoideae were polyphyletic, with Saxicolella pro parte being weakly supported as sister to the remaining Old World Podostemoideae plus Ceratolacis and Podostemum. In contrast to the American and African clades, monophyly of four Asian subclades was well supported. Plants of Tristicha (Tristichoideae) and of Weddellina (Weddellinoideae), which are currently treated as monospecific, had great matK differentiation equivalent to at least interspecific variation. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 169 , 461–492.     

Diversity and clade ages of West Indian hummingbirds and the largest plant clades dependent on them: a 5–9 Myr young mutualistic system

We analysed the geographical origins and divergence times of the West Indian hummingbirds, using a large clock‐dated phylogeny that included 14 of the 15 West Indian species and statistical biogeographical reconstruction. We also compiled a list of 101 West Indian plant species with hummingbird‐adapted flowers (90 of them endemic) and dated the most species‐rich genera or tribes, with together 41 hummingbird‐dependent species, namely Cestrum (seven spp.), Charianthus (six spp.), Gesnerieae (75 species, c. 14 of them hummingbird‐pollinated), Passiflora (ten species, one return to bat‐pollination) and Poitea (five spp.), to relate their ages to those of the bird species. Results imply that hummingbirds colonized the West Indies at least five times, from 6.6 Mya onwards, coming from South and Central America, and that there are five pairs of sister species that originated within the region. The oldest of the dated plant groups diversified 9.1, 8.5, and 5.4 Mya, simultaneous with or slightly before the extant West Indian bird radiations. The time frame of the coevolved bird/flower mutualisms obtained here resembles that recently inferred for North America, namely 5–9 Mya. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 848–859.     

Generic recircumscriptions of Oncidiinae (Orchidaceae: Cymbidieae) based on maximum likelihood analysis of combined DNA datasets

Phylogenetic relationships within the orchid subtribe Oncidiinae sensu Chase were inferred using maximum likelihood analyses of single and multilocus DNA sequence data sets. Analyses included both nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer DNA and plastid regions (matK exon, trnH‐psbA intergenic spacer and two portions of ycf1 exon) for 736 individuals representing approximately 590 species plus seven outgroup taxa. Based on the well resolved and highly supported results, we recognize 61 genera in Oncidiinae. Mimicry of oil‐secreting Malpighiaceae and other floral syndromes evolved in parallel across the subtribe, and many clades exhibit extensive variation in pollination‐related traits. Because previous classifications heavily emphasized these floral features, many genera recognized were not monophyletic. Our classification based on monophyly will facilitate focused monographs and clarifies the evolution of morphological and biochemical traits of interest within this highly diverse subtribe. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 168 , 117–146.     

Molecular and morphological evidence for a Pleistocene radiation of laminate‐toothed rats (Otomys: Rodentia) across a volcanic archipelago in equatorial Africa

West African Mountains of the Cameroon Volcanic Line harbour two montane‐endemic species of laminated‐toothed rats (Otomys), which represent the most westerly occurrence of the genus. We explore here through mtDNA sequencing and cranial morphometrics the taxonomic status and phylogenetic relationships of O. burtoni (Mt Cameroon) and O. occidentalis (Mts Oku and Gotel). We conclude that both species are valid and can be discriminated by molecular data, as well as quantitative and qualitative cranial characters. From molecular data, O. occidentalis and O. burtoni are closest neighbours (p‐distance = 7.5–8.5%) and weakly associated sister species (suggesting a single West African radiation) and both are sister clades to a well supported clade of central, East and northeast African members of the O. typus s.l. and O. tropicalis s.l. species complexes from mountain ranges comprising the East African ‘Montane Circle’ and Ethiopian Highlands. Re‐evaluation of the evolutionary origins of the allopatric Otomys populations in equatorial Africa is undertaken in light of fossil evidence of a southern African origin of the genus. We can conclude that Otomys reached the Cameroon Volcanic Line via corridors of temperate grasslands during the Late Pliocene. Our data support the hypothesis that, following major peripatric speciation events at around 2.3 to 2.03 Ma (from East Africa into West and North Africa respectively), further speciation occurred across neighbouring mountain ranges in West, Central‐East and North‐East Africa. Estimated molecular dates of speciation events in Otomys reveal close congruence with well‐constrained geochronological estimates, pertinently the uplift of the Albertine Rift in the Early Pleistocene. These regional analyses reveal how peripatric speciation events established narrow‐range endemics of Otomys on principal stratovolcanoes across the East African plateau and Cameroon. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 113 , 320–344.     

Neglected refugia of biodiversity: mountainous regions in Mozambique and Malawi yield two novel freshwater crab species (Potamonautidae: Potamonautes)

Phylogenetic relationships amongst the southern African freshwater crab fauna are reinvestigated following the recent collection of morphologically distinct Potamonautes specimens from remote mountainous regions in Malawi and Mozambique. Specimens were subjected to DNA sequencing of three mtDNA loci, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), 12S rRNA, and 16S rRNA and compared to the 14 described species from the region. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference revealed the presence of two novel evolutionary lineages. The phylogeny demonstrates that Potamonautes obesus (A. Milne‐Edwards, 1868) is sister to a morphologically distinct novel species from Mount Namuli in Mozambique. Two sympatric and genetically distinct species from Mount Mulanje, in Malawi (forms A and B) were recognized. Form B is sister to the large‐bodied South African riverine freshwater crabs and represents a novel lineage whereas the remaining species (form A) from Mulanje, in Malawi was sister to samples from Mounts Inago and Mabu, and in Mozambique was identified as Potamonautes choloensis (Chace, 1953). The two novel evolutionary lineages were genetically distinct and morphologically different from the described species in each of the respective regions. Two new freshwater crab species Potamonautes namuliensis sp. nov. and Potamonautes mulanjeensis sp. nov. , are described in the present study. The samples from Mount Mulanje in Malawi, and Mounts Mabu and Inago in Mozambique represent new distribution records for Potamonautes choloensis. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 164 , 498–509.     

Deep phylogeny,net primary productivity,and global body size gradient in birds

Body size is evolutionarily constrained, but the influence of phylogenetic relationships on global body size (i.e. body mass) gradients is unexplored. We quantify and map the family‐level phylogenetic and non‐phylogenetic structure of the global gradient of birds, evaluating the extent to which it is influenced by phylogenetic inertia in contrast to heat conservation, resource availability, starvation resistance, niche conservatism, or interspecific competition. Phylogenetic eigenvector regression (PVR) partitioned the global bird body size gradient into phylogenetically autocorrelated (PA) and phylogenetically independent (PI) components. Simple, piecewise, and partial regressions were used to investigate associations between the PA and PI components of body size and environmental correlates, and to quantify independent and overlapping contributions of environment, phylogenetic autocorrelation, and species richness to the body size gradient. Two‐thirds of the geographic variation in bird body size can be explained by phylogenetic relationships at the family level. The global variation in body size, independent of phylogenetic relationships, is most strongly associated with net primary productivity, which is consistent with ‘starvation resistance’. However, the New and Old worlds have very different patterns. We found no independent association of species richness with body size. Despite major unresolved regional differences, deep phylogenetic relationships, heat conservation, and starvation resistance probably operate in concert in shaping the global bird body size gradient in different parts of the world. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

Phylogeographic diversification of antelope squirrels (Ammospermophilus) across North American deserts

We investigated the biogeographic history of antelope squirrels, genus Ammospermophilus, which are widely distributed across the deserts and other arid lands of western North America. We combined range‐wide sampling of all currently recognized species of Ammospermophilus with a multilocus data set to infer phylogenetic relationships. We then estimated divergence times within identified clades of Ammospermophilus using fossil‐calibrated and rate‐calibrated molecular clocks. Lastly, we explored generalized distributional changes of Ammospermophilus since the last glacial maximum using species distribution models, and assessed responses to Quaternary climate change by generating demographic parameter estimates for the three wide‐ranging clades of A. leucurus. From our phylogenetic estimates we inferred strong phylogeographic structure within Ammospermophilus and the presence of three well‐supported major clades. Initial patterns of historical divergence were coincident with dynamic alterations in the landscape of western North America, and the formation of regional deserts during the Late Miocene and Pliocene. Species distribution models and demographic parameter estimates revealed patterns of recent population expansion in response to glacial retreat. When combined with evidence from co‐distributed taxa, the historical biogeography of Ammospermophilus provides additional insight into the mechanisms that impacted diversification of arid‐adapted taxa across the arid lands of western North America. We propose species recognition of populations of the southern Baja California peninsula to best represent our current understanding of evolutionary relationships among genetic units of Ammospermophilus. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 949–967.     

Phylogeography of two cryptic species of African desert jerboas (Dipodidae: Jaculus)

The lesser Egyptian jerboa Jaculus jaculus is a desert dwelling rodent that inhabits a broad Arabian–Saharan arid zone. Recently, two distant sympatric lineages were described in North‐West Africa, based on morphometric and molecular data, which may correspond to two cryptic species. In the current study, phylogenetic relationships and phylogeographical structure among those lineages and geographical populations from North Africa and the Middle East were investigated. The phylogeographical patterns and genetic diversity of the cytochrome b gene (1110 bp) were addressed on 111 jerboas from 41 localities. We found that the variation in Africa is partitioned into two divergent mitochondrial clades (10.5% divergence relating to 1.65–4.92 Mya) that corresponds to the two cryptic species: J. jaculus and J. deserti. Diversifications within those cryptic species/clades were dated to 0.23–1.13 Mya, suggesting that the Middle Pleistocene climatic change and its environmental consequences affected the evolutionary history of African jerboas. The third distant clade detected, found in the Middle East region, most likely represents a distinct evolutionary unit, independent of the two African lineages. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ??, ??–??.     

Molecular evolution and diversification of the moss family Daltoniaceae (Hookeriales,Bryophyta) with emphasis on the unravelling of the phylogeny of Distichophyllum and its allies

Phylogenetic relationships in Daltoniaceae (～200 species in 14 genera) are inferred from nucleotide sequences from five genes, representing all genomic compartments, using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian methods. Alternative classifications for Daltoniaceae have favoured traits from either sporophytes or gametophytes; phylogenetic transitions in gametophytic leaf limbidia and sporophytic exostome ornamentation were evaluated using ancestral state reconstruction to assess the levels of conflict between these generations. Elimbate leaves and the cross‐striate exostome are reconstructed as plesiomorphic states. Limbate leaves and papillose exostomes evolved at least two and six times, respectively, without reversals. The evolution of leaf limbidia is relatively conserved, but exostome ornamentation is highly homoplasious, indicating that superficial similarity in peristomes gives unreliable approximations of phylogenetic relatedness. Our phylogenetic analyses show that Achrophyllum and Calyptrochaeta are reciprocally monophyletic. Within core Daltoniaceae, relationships among taxa with elimbate leaves are generally well understood. However, taxa with limbate leaves form a monophyletic group, but resolved subclades correspond to biogeographical entities, rather than to traditional concepts of genera. Daltonia (～21 species), Distichophyllum (～100 species) and Leskeodon (～20 species) are polyphyletic. Seven nomenclatural changes are proposed here. As the current taxonomy of Daltoniaceae lacks phylogenetic consistency, critical generic revisions are needed. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

Evidence for autonomous selfing in grassland Protea species (Proteaceae)

It has been assumed that species of the large African genus Protea have strong self‐incompatibility systems. However, this assumption was based largely on studies conducted on a clade of bird‐pollinated species that occur in the shrubby fynbos vegetation of the Cape region of southern Africa. To test whether self‐incompatibility occurs in a grassland/savanna Protea clade, which is largely insect‐pollinated, we performed controlled pollination experiments on four species, P. caffra, P. dracomontana, P. simplex and P. welwitschii. Although pollen–ovule ratios of all four species fall within the range for outcrossers, all four species are self‐compatible and capable of autonomous seed production. Using fluorescence microscopy, we found that self‐pollen tubes had the same probability of reaching ovules as cross‐pollen tubes. In the small tree P. caffra, selfed progeny had rates of germination and survivorship that were identical to those of crossed progeny. The grassland Protea spp. studied are likely to have mixed mating systems on account of being both visited by insects and capable of autonomous selfing. If one assumes previous reports of self‐incompatibility in Protea to be reliable, there have been at least five losses of self‐incompatibility and two gains of autonomous selfing in this genus. However, earlier studies in the genus were often methodologically flawed and a thorough re‐analysis of breeding systems in Protea is required. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 169 , 433–446.     

Molecular dating and diversification of the South American lizard genus Liolaemus (subgenus Eulaemus) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences

The temperate South American lizard genus Liolaemus is the one of the most widely distributed and species‐rich genera of lizards on earth. The genus is divided into two subgenera, Liolaemus sensu stricto (the ‘Chilean group’) and Eulaemus (the ‘Argentino group’), a division that is supported by recent molecular and morphological data. Owing to a lack of reliable fossil data, previous studies have been forced to use either global molecular clocks, a standardized mutation rate adopted from previous studies, or the use of geological events as calibration points. However, simulations indicate that these types of assumptions may result in less accurate estimates of divergence times when clock‐like models or mutation rates are violated. We used a multilocus data set combined with a newly described fossil to provide the first calibrated phylogeny for the crown groups of the clade Eulaemus, and derive new fossil‐calibrated substitution rates (with error) of both nuclear and mtDNA gene regions for Eulaemus specifically. Divergence date estimates for each of the crown groups and appropriate rate estimates will provide the foundation for understanding rates of speciation, historical biogeography, and phylogeographical history for various clades in one of the most diverse lizard genera in the poorly studied Patagonian region. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 164 , 825–835.     

Biology of a new species of socially parasitic thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) inside Dunatothrips nests,with evolutionary implications for inquilinism in thrips

Akainothrips francisi sp. nov. is shown to be an inquiline (i.e. it invades, and breeds within, domiciles of another species). Currently, its only known host is Dunatothrips aneurae, a subsocial thrips that creates silken domiciles by securing together phyllodes of mulga (Acacia aneura) in the arid zone of Australia. We found Ak. francisi prolifically breeding inside live D. aneurae host domiciles, both immature and mature. Akainothrips francisi did not kill its host and we saw no evidence of antagonistic host‐inquiline interactions. This is thus the second demonstrably inquiline species of Acacia thrips, although other possible inquilines have been suggested including two Akainothrips. We found that Ak. francisi occurred with positive density dependence, and was associated with moderately reduced host reproduction. This latter association was especially evident in larger host domiciles, suggesting that Ak. francisi either inhibits further host reproduction after invasion or exploits poor quality hosts more successfully. Sex ratios were slightly female biased. Akainothrips francisi males were exceptionally variable in size, colour, and foreleg size compared to females, with morphs co‐occurring within domiciles, suggesting sexual selection and the possibility of different male reproductive strategies. The discovery of Ak. francisi highlights particular morphological affinities among known or suspected inquiline Acacia thrips within Akainothrips and other genera, allowing us to hypothesize a common origin of this lifestyle from within Akainothrips. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

A tale of the nearly tail‐less: the effects of Plio‐Pleistocene climate change on the diversification of the African avian genus Sylvietta

Sylvietta is a broadly distributed group of African species inhabiting a wide range of habitats and presents an interesting opportunity to investigate the historic mechanisms that have impacted the biogeography of African avian species. We collected sequence data from 50 individuals and used model‐based phylogenetic methods, molecular divergence estimates and ancestral area estimates to construct a time‐calibrated phylogeny and estimation of biogeographic history. We estimate a southern African origin for Sylvietta, with an initial divergence splitting the genus into two clades. The first consists of arid‐adapted species, with a southern African origin and subsequent diversification north into Ethiopia–Somalia. The second clade is estimated as having a Congolian forest origin with an eastward pattern of colonization and diversification as a result of Plio‐Pleistocene forest dynamics. Additionally, two members of the genus Sylvietta display interesting patterns of intraspecific diversification. Sylvietta rufescens is an arid‐adapted species inhabiting southern Africa, and we recover two subclades with a divergence dating to the Pleistocene, a unique pattern for avian species which may be explained via isolation in arid habitat fragments in the early Pleistocene. Second, Sylvietta virens, a species endemic to Afro‐tropical forests, is recovered with geographically structured genetic diversification across its broad range, an interesting result given that recent investigations of several avian forest species have found similar and substantial geographically structured genetic diversity relating to Plio‐Pleistocene forest fragmentation. Overall, Plio‐Pleistocene habitat cycling played a significant role in driving diversification in Sylvietta, and this investigation highlights the substantial impact of climate‐driven habitat dynamics on the history of sub‐Saharan species.     

The phylogeny of a reduced ‘sand goby’ group based on behavioural and life history characters

Phylogenetic analysis of 27 behavioural and life history traits for five Mediterranean sand goby species (Perciformes, Gobiidae) produced one tree with a consistency index (excluding uninformative characters) of 0.756. This tree agreed with previous molecular analyses in providing strong support for the monophyly of the sand gobies, indicating that Pomatoschistus and Knipowitschia are paraphyletic and helping to resolve the ambiguous position of Economidichthys pygmaeus, placing it as the basal member of the reduced data set. Although the tree was completely resolved, the branches above E. pygmaeus were only moderately supported in the bootstrap analysis. Overall, the behavioural data provide information that may eventually help clarify the speciation bursts within the Mediterranean sand goby clade as much as is possible. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 165 , 916–924.     

Parallel adaptive radiations in arid and temperate Australia: molecular phylogeography and systematics of the Egernia whitii (Lacertilia: Scincidae) species group

It has been an enduring belief that increasing aridity combined with Pliocene‐Pleistocene glacial cycles resulted in the formation of distinct arid zone and temperate zone faunas within Australia. We assembled a molecular phylogeny for the Egernia whitii species group, an endemic group of skinks that comprises representatives from arid and temperate Australia, in order to test several biogeographical hypotheses regarding the origin of the Australian arid zone fauna. Sequence data were obtained from ten of the 11 species within the species group, plus three other Egernia species and an outgroup (Eulamprus heatwolei). We targeted portions of the ND4 (696 base pairs) and 16S rRNA (500 bp) mitochondrial genes and the β‐Fibrinogen 7th Intron nuclear gene (648 bp). The edited alignment comprised 1844 characters, of which 551 (30%) were variable and 382 (69%) were parsimony informative. We analysed the data using maximum likelihood and Bayesian techniques and produced a single optimal tree. Our phylogeny strongly supports two major clades within the species group, corresponding to temperate‐adapted rock‐dwelling species and arid‐adapted obligate burrowing species. However, the phylogenetic affinities of E. pulchra were not resolved. Our topology indicates that the New South Wales population of E. margaretae is actually E. whitii and reveals that E. margaretae margaretae and E. m. personata are distinct species. There also appears to be a major phylogeographical break within E. whitii occurring in eastern Victoria. Although our data supported several previously proposed phylogenetic relationships, Shimodaira–Hasegawa tests soundly rejected several suggested affinities between certain species. The arid zone members of the E. whitii species group had been suggested to have originated as a result of multiple periods of colonization during the Pleistocene glaciation cycles. However, our genetic data suggest a single origin (presumably from a semiarid E. multiscutata‐like ancestor) for the arid zone members of the group prior to the Plio‐Pleistocene, probably during the late Miocene to early Pliocene. Our topology displays substantial sequence divergence between species with short internodes and long terminal branches, indicating rapid adaptive radiations within the arid and temperate zones. The presence of temperate‐adapted species within more mesic refugia of the arid zone suggests that the necessary adaptations to aridity for colonizing the dry interior of the continent have not evolved since the initial period of adaptive radiation, despite the long evolutionary history of the species group. © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2004, 83 , 157–173.     

Biogeography of the grasses (Poaceae): a phylogenetic approach to reveal evolutionary history in geographical space and geological time

The grasses (Poaceae) are the fifth most diverse family of angiosperms, including 800 genera and more than 10 000 species. Few phylogenetic studies have tried to investigate palaeo‐biogeographical and palaeo‐ecological scenarios that may have led to present‐day distribution and diversity of grasses at the family level. We produced a dated phylogenetic tree based on combined plastid DNA sequences and a comprehensive sample of Poaceae. Furthermore, we produced an additional tree using a supermatrix of morphological and molecular data that included all 800 grass genera so that ancestral biogeography and ecological habitats could be inferred. We used a likelihood‐based method, which allows the estimation of ancestral polymorphism in both biogeographical and ecological analyses for large data sets. The origin of Poaceae was retrieved as African and shade adapted. The crown node of the BEP + PACCMAD clade was dated at 57 Mya, in the early Eocene. Grasses dispersed to all continents by approximately 60 million years after their Gondwanan origin in the late Cretaceous. PACCMAD taxa adapted to open habitats as early as the late Eocene, a date consistent with recent phytolith fossil data for North America. C₄ photosynthesis first originated in Africa, at least for Chloridoideae in the Eocene at c. 30 Mya. The BEP clade members adapted to open habitats later than PACCMAD members; this was inferred to occur in Eurasia in the Oligocene. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 162 , 543–557.     

Historical Ecology, Responses to Current Ecological Changes and Conservation of Australian Spiders

In response to geohistorical events from the Mesozoic through the Tertiary with contraction of mesic forest to southwestern and eastern montane and coastal regions, and expansion of woodlands and xeric shrublands, nobreak Australian spiders today comprise relict families and genera (confined to Gondwanan habitats and refuges) along with later evolved representatives which have adapted to changing environments. Tropical relicts also persist in refugia in the arid interior while some spiders (both mygalomorphs and araneomorphs) have adapted to arid conditions, mainly through specialized behaviours. Although fire has become increasingly a phenomenon of the Australian environment it is doubtful whether any spiders are adapted to fire per se. European settlement has impacted differentially on relictual and later evolved representatives; a few species, including the funnelweb (Atrax robustus) and redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) have benefited through enhanced habitat opportunities and some species of Badumna and other genera have become synanthropic. It is suggested that conservation strategies need to consider the ecoevolutionary history of particular spiders and their natural vulnerability or resilience to environmental factors.     

Unravelling the evolutionary history of the polyploid complex Ranunculus parnassiifolius (Ranunculaceae)

Ranunculus L. represents the largest genus within Ranunculaceae, comprising more than 600 species with a worldwide distribution. However, there are still many gaps in our knowledge of the infrageneric taxonomy and evolution of Ranunculus. In this regard, intraspecific variation of the polyploid complex Ranunculus parnassiifolius remains under discussion. To reconstruct the biogeographical history of the polyploid complex R. parnassiifolius, 20 populations distributed throughout the Cantabrian Mountains, Pyrenees, and Alps were investigated. Phylogenetic studies were based on nuclear internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and plastid (rpl32‐trnL, rps16‐trnQ) sequence data, analysed using Bayesian approaches as well as the evolution of morphological characters. Additionally, biogeographical patterns were conducted using statistical dispersal–vicariance analysis. The analyses presented here support the recognition of two evolutionary independent units: R. cabrerensis sensu lato (s.l.) and R. parnassiifolius s.l. Furthermore gradual speciation depending on the biogeographical territory is proposed, and optimal reconstructions have probably favoured the ancestor of Ranunculus parnassiifolius as originating in the Iberian Peninsula. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 107 , 477–493.