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In a recent landmark paper, the Huntington''s disease (HD) iPSC Consortium reports on the establishment and characterization of a panel of iPSC lines from HD patients, and more importantly, the successful modeling of HD in vitro. In the same issue of Cell Stem Cell, An et al. reports on the successful targeted gene correction of HD in human iPSCs. Both advances are exciting, provide new resources for current and future HD research, and uncover new challenges to better understand and, most importantly, treat this devastating disease in the near future.Modeling human diseases using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has created novel opportunities for both mechanistic studies as well as for the discovery of new disease therapies. Combined with advanced gene correction technology, human iPSCs hold great promise to provide patient-specific and mutation-free cells for potential cell replacement therapy. Huntington''s disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder, which causes motor dysfunction, psychiatric disturbances and cognitive impairment1. HD is caused by an expanded cystosine adenine guanine (CAG) tri-nucleotide repeat encoding polyglutamine in the first exon of the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. To date, there is no effective therapy for preventing the onset or slowdown of this disorder. Preliminary clinical trials using fetal neural grafts had shown long-lasting functional benefits in patients2. Though only effective in limited cases, these results suggest that cell-based therapy could be a potential treatment if a reliable and consistent cell source is available. For this purpose, an alternative cell source to overcome the logistical and biological hurdles of this disease had been actively explored in the past decade. With recent advancement in human iPSCs technology, HD patient-specific iPSCs coupled with an efficient directed cell differentiation protocol offers hope for an unlimited supply of autologous cells. Since HD is a monogenic disease, with a very well-established correlation between the number of CAG repeats and the age of disease onset, it provides an ideal target for iPSC-based gene correction that will allow for the production of disease-free cells for potential autologous cell therapy, and at the same time provide a much needed, valuable platform to further study the pathogenesis of the disease3,4.This is in fact what has been recently accomplished in two reports published in Cell Stem Cell5,6. The HD iPSC Consortium reports on the generation of HD patient-specific iPSC lines that showed CAG-repeat-expansion-associated phenotypes5. The study from An et al.6 reports on the successful targeted correction of expanded CAG repeat in HD patient iPSCs and the reversion of disease phenotypes.In the study reported from the HD iPSC Consortium, the authors generated 14 iPSC lines from HD patients and controls (listed in Open in a separate window
Open in a separate windowHD, Huntington''s Disease; iPSC, induced pluripotent stem cell; NPC, neural progenitor cell; O, Oct4; S, Sox2; K, Klf4; M, Myc; N, Nanog; L, Lin28.Meanwhile, using a homologous recombination-based gene targeting strategy, An et al.6 reported on the successful correction of the CAG-repeat-expanded HTT allele in HD patient iPSCs. These corrected iPSCs shared the same genetic background as the disease iPSCs, thereby serving as non-biased controls for their uncorrected counterparts. By comparing gene expression profiles of corrected iPSCs versus disease iPSCs, An et al. found that the alterations of cadherin, TGF-β, and caspase-related pathways in HD were rescued in the non-expanded iPSCs. The authors further demonstrated that gene correction in HD iPSCs reversed disease phenotypes such as susceptibility to cell death and altered mitochondrial bioenergetics in NSCs. More importantly, when transplanted into a mouse model of HD, the corrected HD iPSC-derived NSCs could survive and differentiate into GABAergic neurons and DARPP-32-positive neurons in vivo.Taken together, these two studies present very significant advances for iPSC-based disease modeling of HD and provide a potential donor source for cell replacement therapy. Though exciting indeed, several important challenges remain unsolved.First, complete recapitulation of neuropathology phenotypes in the iPSC-based models in vitro remains a challenge in the field. As a neurodegenerative disease, pathologic development of HD usually takes several decades and may be influenced by several external factors. In the HD iPSC-based model, the derivation method, clonal discrepancy as well as the culture conditions may affect the manifestation of phenotypes. Indeed, in previously reported HD iPSC lines, only slight increases in caspase and lysosomal activity were observed7,8,9. Although in both reports of HD iPSCs, significant phenotypes in electrophysiology, energy metabolism and cell death were recorded, other typical HD-associated phenotypes such as oligomeric mutant HTT aggregation, formation of nuclear inclusions and preferential striatal degeneration were not observed.Second, it is still an open question whether neural cells derived from gene-corrected iPSCs are fully functional, that is, whether they may restore physiological functions after cell replacement therapy. Ma et al.10 have recently reported on a protocol to differentiate striatal projection neurons from human embryonic stem cells with a high efficiency. After transplantation, these cells survived, reconnected striatal circuitry, and restored motor function in a striatal neurodegenerative mouse model. In spite of these encouraging first attempts, further improvements of the methodology for the directed cell differentiation in vitro and cell transplantation in vivo are still needed.Third, HTT protein is ubiquitously expressed and functional in different tissue. It has been hypothesized that HD may also develop in a non-autonomous manner11. The current studies mainly focused on the phenotypes of HD iPSC-derived neurons. However, supporting cells such as astrocytes might also play direct or indirect roles in HD progression. Indeed, a vacuolation phenotype has been observed in HD iPSC-derived astrocytes12. Therefore, it will be interesting to expand the HD iPSC platform into other cell types with the goal to extend and uncover the various ethiopathological factors involved in HD.Finally, human iPSC models of monogenic disorders in general possess great potential for the mechanistic study of the disease. However, as is the case with many neuropsychiatric disorders, HD establishment and progression is linked to different genetic and epigenetic factors, including environmental change-induced epigenetic modification, multiple mutations, and genetic alternation in non-coding regions. To this end, although the successful generation of HD iPSCs as well as targeted gene correction would greatly facilitate the study of HD, a comprehensive understanding of HD pathogenesis will need to be achieved before trying to translate the recent results into the clinic.In summary, despite all of these open questions, the recent studies have uncovered the unlimited potential of iPSCs for modeling HD in vitro. These studies will promote and enhance HD research in various areas, including elucidation of HD cellular pathogenesis, development of HD-specific biomarkers, screening for small therapeutic molecules, and manipulation of HD iPSCs for stem cell replacement therapy, which together may ultimately fulfill the promise of using iPSCs as a tool for regenerative medicine and drug discovery for HD in the near future. 相似文献
Code | Number of iPSC line | CAG repeats | HD type | Age of sample procured | Reprogramming strategy | Phenotype detected cell type | Gene correction line available | Phenotype | References |
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HD 43 | 1 | 39/43 | Adult onset HD | 44 years | OSKM (lentivirus) | iPSCs | no | Increased Iysosomal activity | 7 |
HD 44 | 4 | 42/44 | Adult onset HD | 59 years | 2 lines:OSKM (lentivirus) 2 lines: OSK (lentivirus) | iPSCs | no | Increased Iysosomal activity | 7 |
HD 50 | 1 | 50 | Adult onset HD | unknown (father) | OSKM (retrovirus) | Astrocyte | no | Neural differentiation normal, Vacuolation in astrocyte | 12 |
HD109-1 | 1 | 109 | Juvenile HD | unknown (daughter) | OSKM (retrovirus) | Astrocyte | no | Similar to HD 50, more vacuolation in astrocyte | 12 |
HD 72 | 1 | 72 | Juvenile HD | 20 years | OSKM (retrovirus) | NPCs | yes | Elevated caspase activity; more vulnerable to cell death | 6,8,9 |
HD 60 | 3 | 60 | Adult onset HD | 29 years | 2 lines:OSKMNL (lentivirus) 1 line: OSKM (episomal) | NPCs, neurons | no | Altered cell adhesion, energetics, and electrophysiology; Increased cell death in long time neural differentiation | 5 |
HD109-2 | 1 | 109 | Juvenile HD | 9 years | OSKMNL (lentivirus) | NPCs, neurons | no | Similar to HD 60; higher risk to cell death in response to BDNF withdrawal | 5 |
HD180 | 4 | 180 | Juvenile HD | 6 years | 3 lines:OSKMNL (lentivirus) 1 line: OSKM (episomal) | NPCs, neurons | no | Similar to HD 60 and 109; Increased vulnerable to stress and toxicity | 5 |
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John Chen Nuria Carpena Nuria Quiles-Puchalt Geeta Ram Richard P Novick José R Penadés 《The ISME journal》2015,9(5):1260-1263
Bacteriophage-mediated horizontal gene transfer is one of the primary driving forces of bacterial evolution. The pac-type phages are generally thought to facilitate most of the phage-mediated gene transfer between closely related bacteria, including that of mobile genetic elements-encoded virulence genes. In this study, we report that staphylococcal cos-type phages transferred the Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity island SaPIbov5 to non-aureus staphylococcal species and also to different genera. Our results describe the first intra- and intergeneric transfer of a pathogenicity island by a cos phage, and highlight a gene transfer mechanism that may have important implications for pathogen evolution.Classically, transducing phages use the pac site-headful system for DNA packaging. Packaging is initiated on concatemeric post-replicative DNA by terminase cleavage at the sequence-specific pac site, a genome slightly longer than unit length is packaged, and packaging is completed by non-sequence-specific cleavage (reviewed in Rao and Feiss, 2008). Generalized transduction results from the initiation of packaging at pac site homologs in host chromosomal or plasmid DNA, and typically represents ∼1% of the total number of phage particles. In the alternative cos site mechanism packaging is also initiated on concatemeric post-replicative DNA by terminase cleavage at a sequence-specific (cos) site. Here, however, packaging is completed by terminase cleavage at the next cos site, generating a precise monomer with the cohesive termini used for subsequent circularization (Rao and Feiss, 2008). Although cos site homologs may exist in host DNA, it is exceedingly rare that two such sites would be appropriately spaced. Consequently, cos phages, of which lambda is the prototype, do not engage in generalized transduction. For this reason, cos-site phages have been preferred for possible phage therapy, since they would not introduce adventitious host DNA into target organisms.The Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity islands (SaPIs) are the best-characterized members of the phage-inducible chromosomal island family of mobile genetic elements (MGEs; Novick et al., 2010). SaPIs are ∼15 kb mobile elements that encode virulence factors and are parasitic on specific temperate (helper) phages. Helper phage proteins are required to lift their repression (Tormo-Más et al., 2010, 2013), thereby initiating their excision, circularization and replication. Phage-induced lysis releases vast numbers of infectious SaPI particles, resulting in high frequencies of transfer. Most SaPI helper phages identified to date are pac phages, and many well-studied SaPIs are packaged by the headful mechanism (Ruzin et al., 2001; Ubeda et al., 2007). Recently, we have reported that some SaPIs, of which the prototype is SaPIbov5 (Viana et al., 2010), carry phage cos sequences in their genomes, and can be efficiently packaged and transferred by cos phages to S. aureus strains at high frequencies (Quiles-Puchalt et al., 2014). Here we show that this transfer extends to non-aureus staphylococci and to Listeria monocytogenes.Since the pac phages transfer SaPIs to non-aureus staphylococci and to the Gram-positive pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (Maiques et al., 2007; Chen and Novick, 2009), we reasoned that cos phages might also be capable of intra- and intergeneric transfer. We tested this with SaPIbov5, into which we had previously inserted a tetracycline resistance (tetM) marker to enable selection, and with lysogens of two helper cos phages, φ12 and φSLT, carrying SaPIbov5 (strains JP11010 and JP11194, respectively; Supplementary Table 1). The prophages in these strains were induced with mitomycin C, and the resulting lysates were adjusted to 1 μg ml−1 DNase I and RNase A, filter sterilized (0.2 μm pore), and tested for SaPI transfer with tetracycline selection, as previously described (Ubeda et al., 2008). To test for trans-specific or trans-generic transduction, coagulase-negative staphylococci species and L. monocytogenes strains were used as recipients for SaPIbov5 transfer, respectively, as previously described (Maiques et al., 2007; Chen and Novick, 2009). As shown in Figure 1 and Supplementary Table 2). In contrast, deletion of the SaPIbov5 cos site (strains JP11229 and JP11230) did not affect SaPI replication (Supplementary Figure 1), but completely eliminated SaPIbov5 transfer (Supplementary Table 2). The TerS protein is essential for φ12 and SaPIbov5 DNA packaging, but not for phage-mediated lysis (Quiles-Puchalt et al., 2014). As expected, this mutation abolished SaPIbov5 transfer (Open in a separate windowFigure 1(a) Map of SaPIbov5. Arrows represent the localization and orientation of ORFs greater than 50 amino acids in length. Rectangles represent the position of the ori (in purple) or cos (in red) sites. Positions of different primers described in the text are shown. (b) Amplimers generated for detection of SaPIbov5 in the different recipient strains. Supplementary Table 2 lists the sequence of the different primers used. The element was detected in S. epidermidis JP829 (Se-1), S. epidermidis JP830 (Se-2), L. monocytogenes SK1351 (Lm-1), L. monocytogenes EGDe (Lm-2), S. xylosus C2a (Sx) and S. aureus JP4226 (Sa).
Open in a separate windowAbbreviation: SAPI, Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity island.aThe means of results from three independent experiments are shown. Variation was within ±5% in all cases.bNo. of transductants per ml induced culture.Because plaque formation is commonly used to determine phage host range, we next determined the ability of phages φ12 and φSLT to parasitize and form plaques on S. xylosus, S. epidermidis and L. monocytogenes strains. As shown in Supplementary Figure 2, phages φ12 and φSLT can parasitize and form plaques on their normal S. aureus hosts, but are completely unable to lyse the non-aureus strains. Therefore, as previously observed with pac phages (Chen and Novick, 2009), these results indicate that the overall host range of a cos phage may also be much wider if it includes infection without plaque formation.Previous studies have demonstrated pac phage-mediated transfer of MGEs between S. aureus and other bacterial species (Maiques et al., 2007; Chen and Novick, 2009; Uchiyama et al., 2014); however, no previous studies have described the natural intra- or intergeneric transfer of pathogenicity islands by cos phages. As bacterial pathogens become increasingly antibiotic resistant, lytic and poorly transducing phages, such as cos phages, have been proposed for phage therapy, on the grounds that they would not introduce adventitious host DNA into target organisms and that the phages are so restricted in host range that the resulting progeny are harmless and will not result in dysbiosis of human bacterial flora. Because plaque formation was once thought to determine the host range of a phage, the evolutionary impact of phages on bacterial strains they can transduce, but are unable to parasitize, has remained an unrecognized aspect of phage biology and pathogen evolution. Our results add to the recently recognized concept of ‘silent transfer'' of pathogenicity factors carried by MGEs (Maiques et al., 2007; Chen and Novick, 2009) by phages that cannot grow on the target organism. They extend this capability to cos phages, which have hitherto been unrecognized as mediators of natural genetic transfer.The potential for gene transfer of MGEs by this mechanism is limited by the ability of cos phages to adsorb and inject DNA into recipient strains, and also by the presence of suitable attachment sites in recipient genomes. However, since different bacterial genera express wall teichoic acid with similar structures, which can act as bacteriophage receptors governing the routes of horizontal gene transfer between major bacterial pathogens, horizontal gene transfer even across long phylogenetic distances is possible (Winstel et al., 2013). In addition, our previous results also demonstrated that the SaPI integrases have much lower sequence specificity than other typical integrases, and SaPIs readily integrate into alternative sites in the absence of the cognate attC site, such that any bacterium that can adsorb SaPI helper phage is a potential recipient (Chen and Novick, 2009). Thus, we anticipate that cos phages can have an important role in spreading MGEs carrying virulence and resistance genes. We also predict that cos sites will be found on many other MGEs, enabling cos phage-mediated transfer of any such element that can generate post-replicative concatemeric DNA. 相似文献
Table 1
Intra- and intergeneric SaPIbov5 transferaDonor strain | |||
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Phage | SaPI | Recipient strain | SaPI titreb |
φ12 | SaPIbov5 | S. aureus JP4226 | 8.3 × 104 |
S. epidermidis JP829 | 2.4 × 104 | ||
S. epidermidis JP830 | 4.7 × 104 | ||
L. monocytogenes SK1351 | 6.6 × 103 | ||
L. monocytogenes EGDe | 2.1 × 104 | ||
S. xylosus C2a | 7.1 × 104 | ||
φ12 | SaPIbov5 Δcos | S. aureus JP4226 | <10 |
S. epidermidis JP829 | <10 | ||
S. epidermidis JP830 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes SK1351 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes EGDe | <10 | ||
S. xylosus C2a | <10 | ||
φ12 ΔterS | SaPIbov5 | S. aureus JP4226 | <10 |
S. epidermidis JP829 | <10 | ||
S. epidermidis JP830 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes SK1351 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes EGDe | <10 | ||
S. xylosus C2a | <10 | ||
φSLT | SaPIbov5 | S. aureus JP4226 | 4.1 × 103 |
S. epidermidis JP829 | 1.1 × 103 | ||
S. epidermidis JP830 | 2.1 × 103 | ||
L. monocytogenes SK1351 | 3.6 × 102 | ||
L. monocytogenes EGDe | 3.1 × 103 | ||
S. xylosus C2a | 4.0 × 103 | ||
φSLT | SaPIbov5 Δcos | S. aureus JP4226 | <10 |
S. epidermidis JP829 | <10 | ||
S. epidermidis JP830 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes SK1351 | <10 | ||
L. monocytogenes EGDe | <10 | ||
S. xylosus C2a | <10 |
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Philip Hunter 《EMBO reports》2013,14(12):1047-1049
EU-LIFE, which represents 10 European life science research institutes, has reopened the debate about how to fund research at the European level by calling for the budget of the European Research Council to be drastically increased.For more than a decade, European scientists have lobbied policy makers in Brussels to increase European Union (EU) funding for research and to spend the money they do provide more efficiently. This debate eventually led to the establishment of the European Research Council (ERC) in 2007, which provides significant grants and does so on the sole criterion of scientific excellence—something for which the scientific community pushed. As such, there seemed to be consensus about how to judge and fund science at the European level, including in the debate about the EU''s Horizon 2020 funding scheme—the EU''s framework for research and innovation—which will spend €80 billion over the next seven years (2014–2020). The conclusion seemed to be that the ERC should continue to support basic research on the basis of excellence, whereas other parts of the programme would focus on large cooperative projects, improving the competitiveness of Europe and meeting societal challenges such as climate change and public health.But a new body called EU-LIFE—set up in May 2013—has reopened the debate about how to fund science and is campaigning for a greater focus on rewarding excellence, even at the expense of funding projects on the grounds of fairness or to correct imbalances between EU member states. EU-LIFE was founded by 10 institutions including the Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG; Barcelona, Spain), the Institut Curie (Paris, France) and the Max Delbrück Centre (Berlin, Germany), partly to provide a collective voice for mid-sized research institutes in the life sciences that might lack influence on their own (Institute Advanced grant Starting grant Proof-of-concept grant Total ERC grants Total ERC funding (million €) Centre for Genomic Regulation (Spain) 3 9 1 13 19.0 Free University of Brussels (VIB; Belgium) 5 14 1 20 33.3 Institut Curie (France) 7 11 – 18 34.5 Max Delbrück Centre for Molecular Medicine (Germany) 4 4 – 8 15 Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (Portugal) 1 4 – 5 7.8 Research Centre for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (Austria) 1 2 1 4 5.1 European Institute of Oncology (Italy) 3 1 1 5 8.7 Central European Institute of Technology (Czech Republic) – – – – – The Netherlands Cancer Institute (Netherlands) 6 4 – 10 19.5 Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (Finland) – – – – –