Molecular phylogeny of the New World gecko genus Homonota (Squamata: Phyllodactylidae)

The genus Homonota was described by Gray (1845) and currently includes 10 species: Homonota andicola, H. borellii, H. darwinii, H. fasciata, H. rupicola, H. taragui, H. underwoodi, H. uruguayensis, H. williamsii & H. whitii and one subspecies of H. darwinii (H. darwinii macrocephala). It is distributed from 15° latitude south in southern Brazil, through much of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina to 54° south in Patagonia and across multiple different habitats. Several morphological taxonomic studies on a subset of these species have been published, but no molecular phylogenetic hypotheses are available for the genus. The objective of this study is to present a molecular phylogenetic hypothesis for all the described species in the genus. We sequenced two mitochondrial genes (cyt‐b & 12S: 1745 bp), seven nuclear protein coding (RBMX, DMLX, NKTR, PLRL, SINCAIP, MXRA5, ACA4: 5804 bp) and two anonymous nuclear loci (30Hb, 19Hb: 1306 bp) and implemented traditional concatenated analyses (MP, ML, BI) as well as species‐tree (*beast ) approaches. All methods recovered almost the same topology. We recovered the genus Homonota as monophyletic with strong statistical support. Within Homonota, there are three strongly supported clades (whitii, borellii and fasciata), which differ from those previously proposed based on scale shape, osteology, myology and quantitative characters. Detailed morphological analyses based on this highly resolved and well‐supported phylogeny will provide a framework for understanding morphological evolution and historical biogeography of this phenotypically conservative genus. We hypothesize that extensive marine transgressions during Middle and Late Miocene most probably isolated the ancestors of the three main clades in eastern Uruguay (borellii group), north‐western Argentina‐southern Bolivia (fasciata group), and central‐western Argentina (whitii group). Phylogeographic and morphological/morphometric analyses coupled with paleo‐niche modelling are needed to better understand its biogeographical history.     

The phylogeny of Dendropsophini (Anura: Hylidae: Hylinae)

The relationships of the hyline tribe Dendropsophini remain poorly studied, with most published analyses dealing with few of the species groups of Dendropsophus. In order to test the monophyly of Dendropsophini, its genera, and the species groups currently recognized in Dendropsophus, we performed a total evidence phylogenetic analysis. The molecular dataset included sequences of three mitochondrial and five nuclear genes from 210 terminals, including 12 outgroup species, the two species of Xenohyla, and 93 of the 108 recognized species of Dendropsophus. The phenomic dataset includes 46 terminals, one per species (34 Dendropsophus, one Xenohyla, and 11 outgroup species). Our results corroborate the monophyly of Dendropsophini and the reciprocal monophyly of Dendropsophus and Xenohyla. Some species groups of Dendropsophus are paraphyletic (the D. microcephalus, D. minimus, and D. parviceps groups, and the D. rubicundulus clade). On the basis of our results, we recognize nine species groups; for three of them (D. leucophyllatus, D. microcephalus, and D. parviceps groups) we recognize some nominal clades to highlight specific morphology or relationships and facilitate species taxonomy. We further discuss the evolution of oviposition site selection, where our results show multiple instances of independent evolution of terrestrial egg clutches during the evolutionary history of Dendropsophus.     

Multi‐gene phylogenetic analysis of south‐east Asian pest members of the Bactrocera dorsalis species complex (Diptera: Tephritidae) does not support current taxonomy

Bactrocera dorsalis sensu stricto, B. papayae, B. philippinensis and B. carambolae are serious pest fruit fly species of the B. dorsalis complex that predominantly occur in south‐east Asia and the Pacific. Identifying molecular diagnostics has proven problematic for these four taxa, a situation that cofounds biosecurity and quarantine efforts and which may be the result of at least some of these taxa representing the same biological species. We therefore conducted a phylogenetic study of these four species (and closely related outgroup taxa) based on the individuals collected from a wide geographic range; sequencing six loci (cox1, nad4‐3′, CAD, period, ITS1, ITS2) for approximately 20 individuals from each of 16 sample sites. Data were analysed within maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic frameworks for individual loci and concatenated data sets for which we applied multiple monophyly and species delimitation tests. Species monophyly was measured by clade support, posterior probability or bootstrap resampling for Bayesian and likelihood analyses respectively, Rosenberg's reciprocal monophyly measure, P(AB), Rodrigo's (P(RD)) and the genealogical sorting index, gsi. We specifically tested whether there was phylogenetic support for the four ‘ingroup’ pest species using a data set of multiple individuals sampled from a number of populations. Based on our combined data set, Bactrocera carambolae emerges as a distinct monophyletic clade, whereas B. dorsalis s.s., B. papayae and B. philippinensis are unresolved. These data add to the growing body of evidence that B. dorsalis s.s., B. papayae and B. philippinensis are the same biological species, which poses consequences for quarantine, trade and pest management.     

Mitochondrial genomes advance phylogenetic hypotheses for Tylenchina (Nematoda: Chromadorea)

Within the nematode class Chromadorea, the suborder Tylenchina is an ecologically and morphologically diverse assemblage of nematodes that includes free‐living microbivores, fungivores and various types of plant parasites. A recent nematode classification system based largely on SSU rDNA phylogenetic trees classified suborder Tylenchina to include four infraorders: Panagrolaimomorpha, Cephalobomorpha, Tylenchomorpha and Drilonematomorpha, and phylogenetic relationships among species of these infraorders have not always been robustly supported. In this study, we determined the complete mitochondrial genome sequences of three Tylenchina species (Aphelenchus avenae [Aphelenchidae, Tylenchomorpha], Halicephalobus gingivalis, Panagrellus redivivus [Panagrolaimomorpha]) and the partial genome sequence of Acrobeles complexus (Cephalobomorpha) and used these sequences to infer phylogenetic relationships among representatives of the Tylenchina and other nematodes. Phylogenetic analysis of amino acid sequences for 12 protein‐coding genes of 100 nematode species supports monophyly of: Chromadorea, Spiruromorpha, Oxyuridomorpha, Ascarididae + Toxocaridae + Anisakidae, Meloidogynidae + Pratylenchidae + Heteroderidae and Aphelenchoidea. Bayesian and maximum‐likelihood analyses also show the nested position of Diplogasteromorpha within Rhabditomorpha, and Rhigonematomorpha within Ascaridomorpha. These analyses also show non‐monophyly of: clade III, Ancylostomatidae, Panagrolaimomorpha, Tylenchina and Tylenchomorpha. Reconstructed mitochondrial genome phylogeny also revealed that among two main Tylenchomorpha groups, the monophyletic group representing Aphelenchoidea species was sister to the large clade consisting of Ascaridomorpha, Diplogasteromorpha, Rhabditomorpha and Rhigonematomorpha and some Panagrolaimomorpha species, whereas Tylenchoidea species were sister to the most inclusive assemblage containing all infraordinal groups of Chromadorea, except for P. redivivus (Panagrolaimomorpha) and Acrobeles complexus (Cephalobomorpha). The monophyly of Aphelenchoidea (i.e. sister relationship between Aphelenchidae and Aphelenchoididae) recovered in this study indicates that similarity in certain aspects of pharyngeal structure between these two families appears best explained by common ancestry, rather than convergent evolution.     

Molecular systematics and Holarctic phylogeography of cestodes of the genus Anoplocephaloides Baer, 1923 s. s. (Cyclophyllidea,Anoplocephalidae) in lemmings (Lemmus,Synaptomys)

The present molecular systematic and phylogeographic analysis is based on sequences of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) (mtDNA) and 28S ribosomal DNA and includes 59 isolates of cestodes of the genus Anoplocephaloides Baer, 1923 s. s. (Cyclophyllidea, Anoplocephalidae) from arvicoline rodents (lemmings and voles) in the Holarctic region. The emphasis is on Anoplocephaloides lemmi (Rausch 1952) parasitizing Lemmus trimucronatus and Lemmus sibiricus in the northern parts of North America and Arctic coast of Siberia, and Anoplocephaloides kontrimavichusi (Rausch 1976) parasitizing Synaptomys borealis in Alaska and British Columbia. The cox1 data, 28S data and their concatenated data all suggest that A. lemmi and A. kontrimavichusi are both non‐monophyletic, each consisting of two separate, well‐defined clades, that is independent species. As an example, the sister group of the clade 1 of A. lemmi, evidently representing the ‘type clade’ of this species, is the clade 1 of A. kontrimavichusi. For A. kontrimavichusi, it is not known which one is the type clade. There is also fairly strong evidence for the non‐monophyly of Anoplocephaloides dentata (Galli‐Valerio, 1905)‐like species, although an earlier phylogeny suggested that this multispecies assemblage may be monophyletic. The results suggest a deep phylogenetic codivergence of Lemmus spp. and A. lemmi, primarily separating the two largely allopatric host and parasite species at the Kolyma River in east Siberia. There are also two allopatric sublineages within each main clade/species of A. lemmi and Lemmus, but the present distributions of the sublineages within the eastern L. trimucronatus and clade 1 of A. lemmi are not concordant. This discrepancy may be most parsimoniously explained by an extensive westward distributional shift of the easternmost parasite subclade. The results further suggest that the clade 1 of A. kontrimavichusi has diverged through a host shift from the precursor of L. trimucronatus to S. borealis.     

Molecular phylogenetics of mouse opossums: new findings on the phylogeny of Thylamys (Didelphimorphia,Didelphidae)

The mouse opossums of the genus Thylamys constitute a group of species mainly adapted to open xeric‐like habitats and restricted to the southern portion of South America. We used molecular data (mitochondrial and nuclear sequences) to evaluate the phylogenetic and biogeographical relationships of all currently known living species of the genus, recognizing a new taxon from the middle and high elevations of the Peruvian Andes and evaluating the phylogenetic structuring within T. pallidior and T. elegans, as well as the validity of T. sponsorius, T. cinderella and T. tatei, and the haplogroups recognized within T. pusillus. Our results confirm the monophyly of the genus and that the Caatinga and the Cerrado inhabitants Thylamys karimii and T. velutinus are the most basal species in the radiation of Thylamys. We also calibrated a molecular clock which hypothesized a time of origin of the genus of about 24 My, with most species differentiating in middle and late Miocene and Plio‐Pleistocene times of South America.     

Phylogenetic relationships of a Patagonian frog radiation,the Alsodes + Eupsophus clade (Anura: Alsodidae), with comments on the supposed paraphyly of Eupsophus

The frog clade composed of the alsodid genera Alsodes + Eupsophus is the most species‐rich of the Patagonian endemic frog clades, including nearly 31 of the slightly more than 50 species of that region. The biology of this group of frogs is poorly known, its taxonomy quite complex (particularly Alsodes), and its diversity in chromosome number striking when compared with other frogs (collectively, there are species having 2n = 22, 2n = 26, 2n = 28, 2n = 30 or 2n = 34). We present a phylogenetic analysis of this Patagonian frog clade based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences. We sequenced five mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b, cytochrome oxidase I, 12S, 16S, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1) with three intervening tRNAs, and fragments of three nuclear genes (seven in absentia homolog 1, rhodopsin exon 1, RAG‐1), for a maximum of 6510 bp for multiple specimens from 26 of the 31 species. We recovered Eupsophus as polyphyletic, with E. antartandicus, E. sylvaticus, and E. taeniatus in Batrachylidae, in accordance with most previous hypotheses. Based on this result, we transfer E. antartandicus and E. taeniatus back to Batrachyla, and E. sylvaticus to Hylorina (resurrected from the synonymy of Eupsophus), remediating the paraphyly of Eupsophus. Our results strongly corroborate the monophyly of Alsodes + Eupsophus (sensu stricto), the individual monophyly of these genera, and the monophyly of the species groups of Eupsophus. They also show the non‐monophyly of all non‐monotypic species groups of Alsodes proposed in the past. Our results expose several taxonomic problems particularly in Alsodes, and to a lesser extent in Eupsophus. This phylogenetic context suggests a rich evolutionary history of karyotypic diversification in the clade, in part corroborating previous hypotheses. In Alsodes, we predict three independent transformations of chromosome number from the plesiomorphic 2n = 26. All these, strikingly, involve increments or reductions of pairs of haploid chromosomes. Finally, the phylogenetic pattern recovered for Alsodes and Eupsophus suggests a trans‐Andean origin and diversification of the group, with multiple, independent ingressions over cis‐Andean regions.     

Finding arboreal snakes in an evolutionary tree: phylogenetic placement and systematic revision of the Neotropical birdsnakes

The genus Pseustes Fitzinger, 1843 is composed of three recognized species, Pseustes poecilonotus, P. shropshirei and P. sulphureus, which may be the largest sized colubrid snake in the New World. The group has a complex systematic history that has yet to be untangled using modern molecular phylogenetic approaches. The systematic position, within‐group diversity and distribution are therefore uncertain. We obtained samples of four species from multiple specimens across their distribution and analysed one nuclear and two mitochondrial genes to determine the phylogenetic placement of the genus and infer relationships among Pseustes lineages. We find strong support for the paraphyly of Pseustes with respect to the monotypic genus Spilotes, both of which are nested within a clade of at least 23 other New World Colubrinae genera. Based on our results, we formally revise the taxonomy of P. poecilonotus and P. sulphureus, resurrecting the taxon P. polylepis for populations of P. poecilonotus from South America and allocating P. sulphureus to the genus Spilotes which renders both genera monophyletic. Additionally, we identify two lineages that are putatively new and currently unrecognized species. Finally, the placement of P. sulphureus, the type species of Pseustes, in the genus Spilotes, requires the allocation of the senior synonym Phrynonax be considered for the remaining Pseustes taxa.     

Unique multiple paternity in the endangered big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) in an ex situ population in South China

Understanding the mating system and reproductive strategies of an endangered species is critical to the success of captive breeding. The big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is one of the most threatened turtle species in the world. Captive breeding and reintroduction are necessary to re‐establish wild populations of P. megacephalum in some of its historical ranges in China, where the original populations have been extirpated. However, the captive breeding of P. megacephalum is very difficult and this may be due to its mysterious reproductive strategies and special behavior (e.g., aggressive temperament and territoriality). In this study, we achieved successful captive breeding of P. megacephalum by creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions and then investigated its mating system using microsatellite makers. A total of 16 clutches containing 79 eggs of P. megacephalum were collected, and 52 were hatched successfully over two breeding seasons. Of the 15 effective clutches, 6 clutches (40%) exhibited multiple paternity. There was no significant correlation between clutch size and multiple paternity, and no significant difference in hatching success between multiple‐sired and single‐sired clutches. However, there was significant correlation between male body size and the number of offspring, with higher‐ranked males contributing to more clutches. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity and male hierarchy in P. megacephalum. These findings suggest that multiple paternity and male hierarchy should be considered in captive breeding programs for P. megacephalum, and creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions is an effctive way to achieve successful captive breeding and investigate the mating systems of this species.     

Tortoise (Reptilia,Testudinidae) radiations in Southern Africa from the Eocene to the present

Africa, inclusive of the West Indian Ocean islands, harbours 11 of the world's 16 extant testudinid genera. Fossil records indicate that testudinids originated in Asia and dispersed first to North America and Europe (Early Eocene) and later to Africa (Late Eocene). We used mitochondrial (1870 bp) and nuclear (1416 bp) DNA sequence data to assess whether molecular data support the late cladogenesis of Southern African testudinid lineages. Our results revealed strong support for the monophyly of a clade consisting of Kinixys, the two Malagasy genera and four Southern African genera (Psammobates, Stigmochelys, Homopus and Chersina). Kinixys diverged from this clade in the Late Palaeocene, suggesting that testudinids occupied Africa at an earlier date than indicated by fossil records. The Southern African tortoises consist of three, strongly supported clades: Psammobates + Stigmochelys; the five‐toed Homopus + Chersina; and the four‐toed Homopus. Due to the paraphyly of Homopus, we propose the taxonomic resurrection of Chersobius for the five‐toed Homopus species (boulengeri, signatus and solus). Cladogenesis at the genus level occurred mainly in the Eocene, with Chersina and Chersobius diverging in the Oligocene. The latter divergence coincided with species‐level radiations within Homopus (areolatus and femoralis) and Psammobates (oculifer, geometricus and tentorius). Our phylogeny could not resolve relationships within Psammobates, indicating rapid speciation between the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. The Chersobius species were the last to diverge in the Early to Mid‐Miocene. By the Mid‐Miocene, P. tentorius started to differentiate into four lineages instead of the three recognized subspecies: P. t. tentorius, P. t. trimeni and two P. t. verroxii subclades occurring north and south of the Orange River, respectively. Terminal radiations in several taxa suggest the existence of cryptic species and a more diverse tortoise fauna than currently recognized. Factors contributing to this diversity may include the early origin of African testudinids and climatic fluctuations over a heterogeneous landscape.     

The evolution of different maternal investment strategies in two closely related desert vertebrates

We compared egg size phenotypes and tested several predictions from the optimal egg size (OES) and bet‐hedging theories in two North American desert‐dwelling sister tortoise taxa, Gopherus agassizii and G. morafkai, that inhabit different climate spaces: relatively unpredictable and more predictable climate spaces, respectively. Observed patterns in both species differed from the predictions of OES in several ways. Mean egg size increased with maternal body size in both species. Mean egg size was inversely related to clutch order in G. agassizii, a strategy more consistent with the within‐generation hypothesis arising out of bet‐hedging theory or a constraint in egg investment due to resource availability, and contrary to theories of density dependence, which posit that increasing hatchling competition from later season clutches should drive selection for larger eggs. We provide empirical evidence that one species, G. agassizii, employs a bet‐hedging strategy that is a combination of two different bet‐hedging hypotheses. Additionally, we found some evidence for G. morafkai employing a conservative bet‐hedging strategy. (e.g., lack of intra‐ and interclutch variation in egg size relative to body size). Our novel adaptive hypothesis suggests the possibility that natural selection favors smaller offspring in late‐season clutches because they experience a more benign environment or less energetically challenging environmental conditions (i.e., winter) than early clutch progeny, that emerge under harsher and more energetically challenging environmental conditions (i.e., summer). We also discuss alternative hypotheses of sexually antagonistic selection, which arise from the trade‐offs of son versus daughter production that might have different optima depending on clutch order and variation in temperature‐dependent sex determination (TSD) among clutches. Resolution of these hypotheses will require long‐term data on fitness of sons versus daughters as a function of incubation environment, data as yet unavailable for any species with TSD.     

Phylogeny of the Caninae (Carnivora): Combining morphology,behaviour, genes and fossils

Phylogenetic relationships among 36 Recent and 42 extinct species of the Caninae (Canidae) were analysed, based on 360 morphological, developmental, ecological, behavioural and cytogenetic characters and 24 mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Primary phylogenetic analyses were accompanied by experimental analyses based on various combinations of data partitions and taxon samples. Leptocyon was recovered as a paraphyletic stem lineage of the Caninae; monophyly/paraphyly of the fox‐like canids (Vulpini) remains uncertain; Urocyon and Metalopex form a clade, possibly sister to all non‐Leptocyon canids; Otocyon, Nyctereutes and Nurocyon form a clade; dog‐like canids (Canini) are monophyletic (with South American Cerdocyonina and Afro‐Holarctic Canina); all South American hypercarnivores (Canis gezi, Protocyon, Speothos, Theriodictis) form a clade, close to Chrysocyon and Dusicyon; Canis arnensis, C. ferox, C. thooides, C. lepophagus and Eucyon spp. are basal to the Canina; Lycaon is an isolated African hypercarnivore; Cuon and its relatives (Xenocyon, possibly also Canis antonii, C. falconeri and Cynotherium) form a clade close to Canis s. str.; C. edwardii–C. etruscus–C. mosbachensis–C. palmidens–C. variabilis and hypercarnivorous Canis armbrusteri–C. dirus clades belong to Canis s. str. As the highly homoplastic morphological characters connected to dietary biology are the prominent characters available for the key fossil species, we conclude that macroevolutionary and palaeoecological analyses of the extinct and extant Caninae were to some extent compromised by the phylogenies used.     

Flip‐flop organization in the chloroplast genome of Capsosiphon fulvescens (Ulvophyceae,Chlorophyta)

To better understand organelle genome evolution of the ulvophycean green alga Capsosiphon fulvescens, we sequenced and characterized its complete chloroplast genome. The circular chloroplast genome was 111,561 bp in length with 31.3% GC content that contained 108 genes including 77 protein‐coding genes, two copies of rRNA operons, and 27 tRNAs. In this analysis, we found the two types of isoform, called heteroplasmy, were likely caused by a flip‐flop organization. The flip‐flop mechanism may have caused structural variation and gene conversion in the chloroplast genome of C. fulvescens. In a phylogenetic analysis based on all available ulvophycean chloroplast genome data, including a new C. fulvescens genome, we found three major conflicting signals for C. fulvescens and its sister taxon Pseudoneochloris marina within 70 individual genes: (i) monophyly with Ulotrichales, (ii) monophyly with Ulvales, and (iii) monophyly with the clade of Ulotrichales and Ulvales. Although the 70‐gene concatenated phylogeny supported monophyly with Ulvales for both species, these complex phylogenetic signals of individual genes need further investigations using a data‐rich approach (i.e., organelle genome data) from broader taxon sampling.     

The genus Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) in a temperate estuary with description of two new species: Pseudo-nitzschia plurisecta sp. nov. and Pseudo-nitzschia abrensis sp. nov.

The genus Pseudo‐nitzschia contains potentially toxic species of problematic taxonomy, making it one of the most intensively studied diatom genera. The study of 35 clonal strains isolated from the Bilbao estuary, an area that experiences recurrent blooms of Pseudo‐nitzschia, revealed the presence of two new species, P. abrensis and P. plurisecta, differing from their congeners in both morphology and gene sequence. The morphological features were analyzed by LM and EM, whereas molecular analyses were based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) regions of the rDNA. P. plurisecta appears closely related to P. cuspidata/P. pseudodelicatissima in the phylogenetic tree, whereas P. abrensis forms a moderately supported clade with P. heimii/P. subpacifica and P. caciantha/P. circumpora. Comparison of the secondary structure of ITS2 regions reveals marked differences in the most highly conserved regions among related taxa. Morphologically, the new species differ from their closest congeners in the arrangement of the poroid sectors and the density of valve striae and fibulae. The two species share similar pigment composition, and belong to the group of Pseudo‐nitzschia species containing only chlorophyll c₂ and c₃.     

UNIQUE MANIRAPTORAN EGG CLUTCH FROM THE UPPER CRETACEOUS TWO MEDICINE FORMATION OF MONTANA REVEALS THEROPOD NESTING BEHAVIOUR

Abstract: Egg clutches of non‐avian maniraptoran theropods (Dinosauria) are rare, particularly in North America where those of Troodon formosus are the only maniraptoran clutches known. Here we describe a new partial maniraptoran clutch and nesting trace referred to Montanoolithus strongorum oogen. et oosp. nov. (Montanoolithidae oofam. nov.), from the Upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation of Montana. Based on a cladistic analysis of reproductive traits, we infer that this clutch belonged either to a caenagnathid or to a dromaeosaurid, which makes it the first clutch known of either taxon. This specimen preserves impressions and eggshell fragments of at least five eggs on a nest structure. The eggs are asymmetrical, paired, and lay radially in a ring configuration on the sloped sides of a bioturbated, flat‐topped sandstone mound. Geology of the locality indicates the female nested in a poorly‐vegetated area of freshly deposited sand, possibly near an active river channel. This clutch reveals that the egg‐layer of Montanoolithus strongorum had a unique suite of reproductive characteristics and nesting behaviours among maniraptorans.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the leafhopper genus Apogonalia (Insecta: Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) and comments on the biogeography of the Caribbean islands

A phylogenetic analysis of the leafhopper genus Apogonalia was conducted based on a matrix of 40 terminal taxa and 147 morphological characters. The analysis yielded 1391 equally most‐parsimonious trees, which do not support the monophyly of Apogonalia in the strict consensus. A successive weighting procedure yielded 62 trees in which the genus appeared as a monophyletic group. The strict consensus of these 62 trees is almost entirely dichotomous, showing only two polytomies. The test of phylogenetic integrity was applied for distinct variations of three species: A. germana, A. sanguinipes, and A. histrio. Only for the first species was the conjecture that its variations belong to the same entity corroborated. The best‐supported clade within Apogonalia, which has several synapomorphies and high branch support indices, comprises nine Antillean endemic species. This distributional pattern probably was originated by vicariance in the Late Cretaceous, when the Proto‐Antillean archipelago was pushed north‐eastward by the Caribbean Plate to become the modern Greater Antilles. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 163 , 548–570.     

The effects of temperature and food on copepodite development,growth and reproduction in three species of Boeckella (Copepoda; Calanoida)

Three species of Boeckella (B. triarticulata, B. dilatata and B. hamata) were reared from copepodite I to adult at three naturally fluctuating food levels and three temperatures in a 3 × 3 × 3 factorial design. Development times, lengths, times to produce the first clutch, clutch sizes, egg voumes, interclutch times, infertile clutches, total egg production, total reproductive time and mortality were measured. Development times for the three species were surprisingly similar but mortality differed among the treatments. The three species differed in their reproductive strategies. B. triarticulata, the largest species, produced a few large clutches. B. dilatata, the smallest species, produced many small clutches and invested the most energy per egg. B. hamata produced larger clutches than B. dilatata but not as many. B. hamata was the most tolerant of low, food levels and exhibited the most plasticity across the treatments. Thus, greater plasticity in life history characters is associated with survival in a wider-range of conditions.     

An assessment of the status of Polycirridae genera (Annelida: Terebelliformia) and evolutionary transformation series of characters within the family

A phylogenetic analysis was performed to determine the monophyly of non‐monotypic genera of the terebelliform family Polycirridae, i.e. Polycirrus, Amaeana, Lysilla, and Hauchiella, and the evolution of characters among members of this clade. The monotypic genera, Enoplobranchus and Biremis, were also included, together with members of both known species in Hauchiella. Representative species were included for remaining genera: 14 species of Polycirrus, six species of Amaeana, and six species of Lysilla. Out‐groups consisted of representatives of Spionidae, Cirratulidae, and Sabellariidae, as well as several species of Telothelepodidae. A total of 40 in‐ and out‐group species were coded for 50 subjects (‘characters’) and 117 subject–predicate relationships (‘states’). Although results are consistent with recent phylogenetic studies within Terebelliformia that suggest Polycirridae monophyly, only Hauchiella was found to be monophyletic, albeit part of the more inclusive clade comprising remaining polycirrid genera. Evolutionary transformation series are discussed for selected characters in relation to the non‐monophyly of Polycirrus, Lysilla, and Amaeana. Implications for the use of supraspecific taxa as ‘taxonomic surrogates’ are highlighted. The definition of Polycirridae is emended. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London