The 100-calorie semi-solution: sub-packaging most reduces intake among the heaviest

This study addresses two questions about sub‐packaging: (i) Do 100‐calorie packages reduce the calorie intake of overweight individuals differently than normal‐weight individuals? (ii) Do they enable individuals to accurately track intake? Thirty‐seven undergraduates were randomly given either four 100‐calorie packages of crackers or one 400‐calorie package of crackers to eat while watching television. The average participant ate 25.2% (75.1 calories) less when given four 100‐calorie packages of crackers than when given one 400‐calorie package (P = 0.006). In addition, much of this influence was driven by overweight participants whose intake decreased by 54.1%. However, all of the participants underestimated their consumption by 60% or more, indicating that sub‐packaging does not appear to increase one's accuracy in estimating how much is consumed. Smaller sized sub‐packaging most greatly benefits those who are overweight, yet it does so without making people more aware of how much they have eaten.     

Positive Maternal Attitude to the Family Eating Together Decreases the Risk of Adolescent Overweight

Objectives: To determine whether maternal attitude towards the family regularly eating together and maternal report of how often the family eat together are associated with adolescent offspring overweight. Research Methods and Procedures: A cross‐sectional mother‐child‐linked analysis was carried out using 14‐year follow‐up data from a population‐based prospective birth cohort of 3795 children (52% males) who were participants in the Mater‐University study of pregnancy, Brisbane, Australia. Maternal reports on family eating pattern reported at age 14 were used. Results: The prevalence of overweight at age 14 was 24.1% (95% confidence interval (CI), 22.3, 26.1) for males and 27.1% (CI, 25.1, 29.2) for females. The majority of mothers (78%) reported that the family ate together at least once a day, but only 43% reported that they felt that family eating together was important. The offspring of women who felt that the family eating together was not important had increased odds of being overweight at age 14 (odds ratio, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.05, 1.53) in age‐ and sex‐adjusted models. Adjustment for potential confounding factors had no substantive effect on the association. There was no association between maternal reports of how often the family actually did eat together and overweight at age 14 in the offspring. Discussion: These findings suggest that maternal attitude towards family eating patterns, but not maternal report of how often the family do eat together, are associated with childhood overweight status. Maternal attitude towards family eating (as opposed to a report of actual frequency at one time‐point) may reflect broader maternal influences (beyond family eating pattern) on their child's diet and eating patterns over a long time course.     

Behavioural contributions to the regulated intake of plant secondary metabolites in koalas

In a given period of time, herbivores often eat less as dietary plant secondary metabolite (PSM) concentrations increase. This reduction in total food intake is interpreted as a need for the herbivore to regulate PSM ingestion in order to avoid toxication. However, regulation of PSM ingestion involves more than the reduction of total intake; it involves an alteration of meal patterns, through a reduction in the number and/or the size of the meals eaten. Despite this, studies of how herbivores alter their meal patterns when offered varying concentrations of PSMs are rare. We investigated whether koalas adjust the number and/or the size of their meals when offered eucalypt foliage varying naturally in concentrations of formylated phloroglucinol compounds (FPCs), a group of PSMs that have previously been shown to inhibit total food intake. High FPC concentrations caused koalas to eat more slowly, eat shorter meals and eat less per meal, which resulted in a reduced total intake. Because increasing FPC concentrations did not cause koalas to alter the number of meals that they ate, clear individual differences between koalas were observed, where some consistently ate fewer larger meals and others ate many smaller meals. Thus, different feeding strategies may still achieve the same outcome of a regulated intake of PSMs. The changes observed match the meal patterns of other herbivores ingesting PSMs known to stimulate nausea and emetic pathways, supporting the idea that feedback signals from nausea are an important way that koalas avoid toxication when eating eucalypt foliage.     

THE LEBANESE PHYSICIAN: A PUBLIC'S VIEWPOINT

A physician's lack of humanity is a general complaint in public surveys. The physician‐patient relationship is viewed by the public as being reduced to a business relationship where the patient feels that she is merely a ‘client’ and the physician a healthcare ‘practitioner’ instead of a ‘care giver’. This public perception is not a phenomenon that is peculiar to Lebanon. Yet, the problem has been increasing over the years to the extent that patients feel that physicians are becoming inhumane and business oriented. While this might not characterize all physicians of the 21^st century, this might be true of at least some. Responses were collected from a study that was undertaken based on a questionnaire distributed to a pool of 650 participants from different geographical areas and different social and educational backgrounds in Lebanon. Participants were all older than18 years and mentally competent. None were physicians. The questionnaire was open‐ended and initially piloted among a random sample. The physician traits most desired by the public were found to be: moral traits (41%), interpersonal traits (36%), scientific traits (19%) and other (4%). The most unwanted traits/behaviours were a lack of interpersonal traits (57%), a lack of moral traits (40%) and a lack of scientific skills (3%). The physician‐patient relationship was perceived, in general, as being a flawed one. What can be done to remedy the image of the Lebanese physician that has been projected in the minds of the patients and the public at large? Nine major recommendations are presented.     

Ants (Formicidae) as food for birds in southern Africa: opportunism or survival?

Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are eaten by a number of bird species in southern Africa. Our database contained 545 species (excluding waterbirds and raptors), of which 179 species have been observed feeding on ants, or had ants in their stomachs. Ants are eaten by birds in all ecosystems, but the consumption of ants is disproportionately high in species that occur in arid ecosystems. The number of bird species eating ants increases in proportion to the number of bird species in any ecosystem, but it increases disproportionately with decreasing mean annual rainfall. There was a small, but not significant, difference in the proportion of ant-eating bird species between 502 resident species, of which 154 (30.6%) eat ants, and 47 nomadic species, of which 18 (38.2%) eat ants. Foraging behaviour and substrate, i.e. whether foraging in the air, from a perch or on the ground, significantly influenced the probability that ants would be included in the diet.     

Feather eating in individually caged hens which differ in their propensity to feather peck

Two experiments examined the responses of 16 individually caged laying hens to the presentation of feathers plucked from dead birds of the same genetic line. In the first experiment, hens known from a previous experiment to be either feather 'peckers' or 'non-peckers' (8 of each) were tested for their propensity to eat feathers in four 10min trials, in which they were offered fresh semiplumes measuring 4-6cm (length), one at a time, in front of their cage. Wide variation between birds was observed in numbers of feathers eaten, pecked, picked-up and manipulated. Fourteen out of 16 birds readily ate presented feathers on one or more occasion and both birds that ate no feathers were non-peckers. Peckers ate, picked-up and manipulated feathers significantly more often than did non-peckers (P<0.05, P<0.01 and P<0.01, respectively). A second experiment investigated the possibility that presence of preen (uropygial) oil might contribute to the attractiveness of feathers to eat. The same group of 16 pecker and non-pecker hens were offered a choice between 20 washed and 20 unwashed semiplumes, presented simultaneously in separate containers, in two 10min trials. Unwashed feathers were eaten, pecked and picked-up in preference to washed feathers by both peckers and non-peckers (P<0.05, P<0.01, and P<0.01, respectively), indicating an attraction towards unwashed feathers, or an avoidance of washed feathers for some reason. Peckers and non-peckers did not differ significantly in their preferences. These results provide evidence of a relationship between feather eating and feather pecking at an individual level. The finding that hens could distinguish between normal feathers and those treated in such a way as to alter their olfactory (but not visual) properties suggests olfactory cues may be of importance in determining the attractiveness of conspecific feathers.     

Food intake in healthy young adults: effects of time pressure and social factors

Some factors influencing food intake and subjective responses to meals were assessed in 2 groups (n=40 and n=36) of healthy university students. Both groups were studied for 6 days and included both "structured" and "unstructured" times. A questionnaire was completed by all subjects at 3 h intervals while awake. The questionnaires asked the subjects to state the factors that led them to choose to eat or not to eat a meal in the previous 3 h. If they ate a meal, they were required to describe the type of meal eaten and their responses to it-their hunger before it, their enjoyment of the meal itself, and their degree of satisfaction afterwards. Subjects were also asked to describe the type of meal that they would like to have eaten (the desired meal) in the absence of any restraints due to time pressure, cost, and so on. In the first group, 3 "structured" (working) and 3 "unstructured" (rest) days were chosen. Consistant with our previous studies, structured days, as compared to unstructured days, were associated with smaller meals and less positive subjective responses to them. Also, the meals that were eaten were often smaller than those that were desired, or were even missed altogether, due to time pressure. Not only were the meals eaten on unstructured days larger and rated, to by the subjects more positively, but also there was an additional positive effect if the meal played a social role. In the second group, 6 days were chosen, during which there were structured and unstructured 3 h periods. Many of the findings (with regard to reasons for eating or not eating a meal, and the effect of meal size upon subjective responses to it, for example) were the same as in the first group. However, the effect of structured vs. unstructured 3 h periods was significantly less marked than the effect of structured vs. unstructured days that had been found in the first group, and effects due to social factors and time pressure were less reliably present. The results indicate that food intake is affected by whether the whole or only part of the day is "structured" or "unstructured." These findings might be relevant to some problems faced by the workforce, in general, and by night workers, in particular.     

Insect-eating by sympatric Lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan t. troglodytes) in the Lopé Reserve,Gabon

Sympatric populations of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the Lopé Reserve in central Gabon consumed insects at similar average frequencies over a 7-year period (30% versus 31% feces contained insect remains). Data came mostly from fecal analysis supplemented by observation and trail evidence. The weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) was the species eaten most frequently by both gorillas and chimpanzees. Other species of insects wore eaten but there was virtually no overlap: Chimpanzees used tools to eat Apis bees (and their honey) and two large species of ants; gorillas ate three species of small ants. Thus, despite their shared habitat, the esources utilized were not identical as gorillas do not show the tool-use “technology” of chimpanzees. The frequency of insect-eating by both species of ape varied seasonally and between years but in different ways. This variation did not seem to be related to the ratio of fruit to foliage in their diets. Gorillas of all age-classes ate insects at similar rates. Comparisons with insectivory by other populations of gorillas indicate differences exist. Mountain gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei) in the Virunga Volcanoes, Rwanda, consume thousands of invertebrates daily, eating them inadvertently with handfuls of herbaceous foods but they deliberately ingest insect-foods only rarely. Lowland gorillas at Lopé habitually ate social insects, and their selective processing of herbaceous foods probably minimizes inadvertent consumption of other invertebrates. Gorillas at Belinga in northeastern Gabon, 250 km from Lop6, ate social insects at similar rates but ignored weaver ants in favor of Cubitermes sulcifrons, a small species of termite that occurs at Lopé but was not eaten by gorillas. This indicates that local traditions similar to those reported for chimpanzees also exist amongst populations of gorillas. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

A comparison of eating habits between retired or semi-retired aged subjects and younger subjects in full-time work

An analysis of eating habits in older retired subjects (“No Work group”) and younger subjects employed in full-time work (“Work group”) has been carried out. It used a questionnaire that assessed why individuals chose to eat or not to eat meals during the course of the day, and subjective responses to the meals. The questionnaire was answered every three hours over a “typical week” which, for the Work group, entailed working during the weekdays and resting at the weekend. For the “No Work” group, breakfast was the most frequently taken meal of the day whereas, for the “Work” group, this meal was often missed. Patterns of meal intake were not significantly different between the weekdays and weekend for the “No Work” group, but the “Work” group ate more hot food at the weekend. The reasons cited for eating/not eating a meal and for choosing the type of meal eaten were dominated by hunger/lack of hunger in both groups. In addition, whereas habits were also important for the “No Work” group, it was time availability or the lack of it that was of major importance to the Work group, though this was significantly less important at the weekend. Meals which required more time for preparation and cooking were appreciated significantly more (appetite before the meal, enjoyment during it, and satiety afterwards) than meals such as snacks and cold food, which could be prepared more quickly. Some implications of these results, with regard to regular meals acting as a social zeitgeber in older subjects and the additional constraints imposed upon night workers, are considered.     

Risk of Ill-Informed Decision-Making When Choosing Your Favorite Fish

Risk to children of women who choose a favorite fish without regard to its methylmercury or omega-3 content was estimated under three consumption scenarios: (1) current fish consumption rate by U.S. women if limited to orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus), (2) 12 oz of roughy per week, and (3) roughy consumption to meet docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) requirements. Risks were similarly assessed if king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) were eaten. Based on mercury concentrations in fillets purchased from 2004–2007 (0.73 ± 0.29 mg Hg/kg; n = 45), women would have an 85% probability of exceeding USEPA's reference dose (RfD) if they ate only roughy. Based on literature-derived concentrations, they would have a 91% probability of exceeding the RfD if they ate only mackerel. Increasing consumption of either fish to 12 oz per week would increase their probability of exceeding the RfD to 100%. Attempting to meet DHA requirements through eating these fish also results in a 100% probability of exceeding the RfD; however, owing to its very low DHA content, roughy consumption would result in exceedance by 100-fold. These results highlight recommendations of others that benefits and risks of fish consumption should be presented together to enable consumers to make informed decisions.     

Does time of the season influence filial cannibalism in the sand goby, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pomatoschistus minutus</Emphasis>?

According to life-history theory, filial cannibalism by fish that breed over one season only should be more beneficial early than late in the season if they eat eggs to invest energy into later clutches. Also, filial cannibalism may be more costly late in the season if finding ripe females for replacing eaten eggs is harder then. On the other hand, offspring hatching early may have a competitive advantage over fry hatching late and hence provide higher fitness to the parent. Using data collected over three successive years, I tested if sand goby males are more prone to eat of their eggs early than late in the reproductive season. I found no difference in the amount of eggs eaten or in the frequency of males eating the whole clutch between early and late in the season. Furthermore, there was no difference in the frequency of males who ate parts of their clutches, early compared to late. This might reflect a trade-off between quality (early hatching offspring) and quantity (producing as many offspring as possible over a long reproductive season). If so, the lack of seasonal pattern of filial cannibalism found in sand gobies might be the result of opposing selection pressures.     

Food Intake in Healthy Young Adults: Effects of Time Pressure and Social Factors

Some factors influencing food intake and subjective responses to meals were assessed in 2 groups (n=40 and n=36) of healthy university students. Both groups were studied for 6 days and included both “structured” and “unstructured” times. A questionnaire was completed by all subjects at 3 h intervals while awake. The questionnaires asked the subjects to state the factors that led them to choose to eat or not to eat a meal in the previous 3 h. If they ate a meal, they were required to describe the type of meal eaten and their responses to it—their hunger before it, their enjoyment of the meal itself, and their degree of satisfaction afterwards. Subjects were also asked to describe the type of meal that they would like to have eaten (the desired meal) in the absence of any restraints due to time pressure, cost, and so on. In the first group, 3 “structured” (working) and 3 “unstructured” (rest) days were chosen. Consistant with our previous studies, structured days, as compared to unstructured days, were associated with smaller meals and less positive subjective responses to them. Also, the meals that were eaten were often smaller than those that were desired, or were even missed altogether, due to time pressure. Not only were the meals eaten on unstructured days larger and rated, to by the subjects more positively, but also there was an additional positive effect if the meal played a social role. In the second group, 6 days were chosen, during which there were structured and unstructured 3 h periods. Many of the findings (with regard to reasons for eating or not eating a meal, and the effect of meal size upon subjective responses to it, for example) were the same as in the first group. However, the effect of structured vs. unstructured 3 h periods was significantly less marked than the effect of structured vs. unstructured days that had been found in the first group, and effects due to social factors and time pressure were less reliably present. The results indicate that food intake is affected by whether the whole or only part of the day is “structured” or “unstructured.” These findings might be relevant to some problems faced by the workforce, in general, and by night workers, in particular.     

Model simulations of conditions suitable for the establishment of Enteromorpha sp. (Chlorophyta) macroalgal mats

Floating mats of algae regularly appear in shallow bays in many coastal areas around the world. This paper presents a model that simulates the growth of ephemeral macroalgae in shallow bays, and interprets the growth according to physical and biological prerequisites. Model runs emphasized the role of internal nutrient cycling to provide the enhanced nutrient availability needed to ensure abundant growth of macroalgae. Thus, the presence of macroalgae, as well as long water residence times, influenced the nutrient cycling in the bay to support further growth of macroalgal mats.     

Estimating the global warming emissions of the LCAXVII conference: connecting flights matter

Purpose

Conferences are an important element of scientific activity but can also be a major cause of environmental burden. With this in mind, we analysed the global warming emissions of the 2017 annual conference of the American Center for Life Cycle Assessment (ACLCA), in order to estimate the carbon footprint and identify potential ways to reduce it.

Methods

We used survey data from participants as well as literature sources to complete an attributional assessment of the greenhouse gas emissions per participant. A method to calculate the ‘ideal’ location is proposed, which can be used to identify ‘unreasonably’ distant conference locations.

Results and discussion

The average emissions per participant were found to be 952 kg CO_2eq, but with a large variability due to differences in travelled distance. Connecting flights were found to increase emissions up to 32% compared to direct flights, due to the increased number of take-offs and landings.

Conclusions

Results indicate that future studies should use distance-dependent flight emissions to increase the accuracy of the assessment. Some measures, such as meat-free menus, had a relatively minor contribution to emission reductions, but could be important as scientists advocating for the reduction of environmental burden should lead by example.

     

Diet and Food Choice in Peruvian Red Uakaris (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cacajao calvus ucayalii</Emphasis>): Selective or Opportunistic Seed Predation?

Even primates considered dietary specialists tend to eat a combination of fruit pulp, seeds, other plant parts, or animals. Specialist seed predators could either feed on seeds preferentially, or to avoid competition when ripe pulps are scarce. Pitheciin monkeys have specialized dentition that allows them to feed on seeds protected by hard shells, and the upper limit on the hardness of these is likely to be a function of jaw size. We recorded the diet of Peruvian red uakaris (Cacajao calvus ucayalii) on the Yavari River, Peru, to test the prediction that this seed predator would feed on the seeds of hard-shelled fruits preferentially over softer ones in relation to their availability in the forest. We also tested predictions that adult male, adult female, and juvenile diets would differ, with larger individuals eating more hard fruits. Uakaris ate 55.4% seeds, 38.9% pulps and arils, and 5.6% other items, but proportions varied through the year. More pulps, especially from the palm Mauritia flexuosa, were eaten when fruit availability was low, and more hard fruits were positively selected for than softer ones. Juveniles did not open the hardest fruit species opened by adults, and adult males ate harder fruits than females. These results provide evidence that seed eating in some primates has evolved beyond a means of avoiding competition for the ripe pulps typically preferred by many primates. Specialist seeding-eating primates therefore occupy divergent niches that require separate consideration from those of similar-sized primates.     

Individual differences in responses of Norway rats to social induction of food preferences

Each of 36 observer rats was: (1) exposed to a demonstrator rat that had eaten an unpalatable, cayenne-pepper-flavored diet (Diet Cay), then tested to determine its willingness to eat Diet Cay and (2) exposed to a demonstrator rat that had eaten a palatable diet (Diet NPT) to which the observer had previously learned an aversion, then tested to determine its willingness to eat Diet NPT. In both instances, some observers ate substantial amounts of the diet that their respective demonstrators had eaten, while other observers did not. No consistency was found across the two situations in the relative susceptibility of individual observer rats to social influences on their food choices. In a second experiment, observer rats interacted, at 3 day intervals, with demonstrator rats that had each eaten different diets. After each interaction, all observers were given a choice test to determine their preferences for the diet that their demonstrators had eaten. Again, there was no consistency in the relative strength of individual observer rats' socially induced preferences for diets fed to demonstrators. Stable individual differences in magnitude of susceptibility to social influence on food preference did not account for a detectable proportion of observed variance in diet selection.     

Historical changes and inventory of macroalgae from Königshafen Bay in the northern Wadden Sea

Knowledge on the distribution, abundance and species richness of intertidal macroalgae occurring on sandy and muddy flats of the German Wadden Sea is still incomplete. We summarize published and unpublished information available on the presence of macroalgae on the tidal flats of Königshafen Bay (island of Sylt, North Sea), one of the more extensively studied areas of the Wadden Sea. A total of 46 green algal species, 36 brown algal species and 26 red algal species has been recorded within the last 120 years on soft and hard substrata of Königshafen Bay (disregarding species found unattached or drifting). Several of these species were only temporarily resident on the tidal flats. Today, at least 35 green, 15 brown and 12 red algal species occur within or close to Königshafen Bay. Significant long-term changes in species abundances have occurred in all three major groups of algae: Since the late 1970s, dense green algal mats dominated byEnteromorpha flexuosa, E. radiata andE. prolifera have occurred regularly on the intertidal flats, whereas a general decrease of brown and red algae has been documented. Two red algal species,Gracilaria verrucosa and its epiphyteCallithamnion corymbosum, were conspicuous members of the macroflora until the middle of this century. Although still present in the 1980s, they have now disappeared completely. On the other hand, the brown algaSargassum muticum has begun to colonize mussel beds. The causal background of long-term changes in the macroalgal flora of Königshafen Bay is discussed. Owing to substantial nomenclatural changes during the last 120 years, a revised species list with authors’ names and synonyms is included.     

珊瑚藻类对南麂列岛潮间带底栖生物群落多样性的影响

为了解南麂列岛潮间带珊瑚藻类对于其他大型藻类和底栖动物的影响, 在南麂列岛国家级海洋自然保护区布设了4条潮间带断面, 于2012年5月至2013年2月对其生物状况进行了逐季调查, 分别分析了中低潮区大型藻类、非珊瑚藻大型藻类、底栖动物的物种多样性和均匀度, 并计算了大型底栖动物的功能多样性指数Rao's Q。主要结果如下: (1)共采集和鉴定出大型藻类52种, 其中珊瑚藻科藻类有5种; (2)珊瑚藻类在高潮区没有分布, 在中低潮区均占据优势, 占潮间带藻类生物量的68.9%。四季中低潮区大型藻类的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数范围为1.638-4.044, 非珊瑚藻大型藻类的多样性指数范围为1.495-3.809, 底栖动物为5.289-6.917; 大型藻类的Pielou均匀度指数范围为0.819-0.971, 非珊瑚藻大型藻类的均匀度指数范围为0.830-0.973, 底栖动物为0.967-0.988; (3)大型藻类物种多样性和均匀度指数的降低与珊瑚藻类优势度的增加相关, 但珊瑚藻类优势度与底栖动物物种多样性指数、均匀度指数和功能多样性指数均没有显著相关性; (4)底栖动物功能多样性与珊瑚藻类优势度均呈低潮区高于中潮区的变化规律, 但相关性分析表明两者间并无直接联系。推测珊瑚藻类通过竞争占据了其他藻类的生存空间, 从而降低了南麂列岛潮间带大型藻类的物种多样性和均匀度。底栖动物则因其自身生活特点而使得珊瑚藻类的扩张未能影响其多样性水平。     

烟台养马岛潮间带大型海藻分布特征及环境影响因素

2010年4月—2011年3月对烟台养马岛潮间带大型海藻进行了逐月调查.在养马岛潮间带共设置了A、B两个点,对大型海藻物种组成、生物量以及与环境变化的关系进行了研究.结果表明: 调查区域共有大型海藻35种,其中红藻24种,占总数的68.6%;绿藻6种,占总数的17.1%;褐藻5种,占总数的14.3%.夏季优势种以褐藻和绿藻为主,秋、冬、春季优势种以红藻和褐藻为主,鼠尾藻在各季节中均为优势种.大型海藻生物量呈现夏季高、冬季低的特点,生物量最高值出现在6月,A、B采样点大型海藻生物量最小值分别出现在1月和11月,具有温带海域藻类变化特点.温度、营养盐和pH对大型海藻生物量有显著影响.
     

Lack of Evidence for a Marked Endogenous Component Determining Food Intake in Humans During Forced Desynchrony

In an attempt to investigate the relative importance of endogenous and exogenous factors in determining food intake, 14 healthy subjects were studied while living in an Isolation Unit (where external time cues were absent) for eighteen 28 h “days” (equal to 21 solar days). The subjects were free to spend their waking time as they chose, and they had a free choice of what they ate and when they ate it. The only restrictions were that no naps were allowed in the “daytime,” that some time was required to perform a variety of tests at regular intervals throughout the 18.67 h waking periods, and that any food preparation had to be performed by the subjects themselves. Core (rectal) temperature and activity were monitored throughout, and the subjects answered a questionnaire on their eating habits at 3 h intervals during the waking periods. The questionnaire investigated reasons for eating or not eating a meal during the previous 3 h and, if a meal had been eaten, its type, the factors influencing that choice, and the subjects’ subjective responses (hunger before, enjoyment during, and satiety after) to it. The results were analyzed (two-way ANOVA) in terms of both the imposed day length (the exogenous component) and the free-running period of the temperature rhythm (the endogenous component). Results indicated that by far the main reason for eating/not eating was hunger/lack of hunger rather than factors such as food availability and time-pressure. There were statistically significant effects of time within the imposed waking periods upon the type of meal eaten—“breakfast” tending to be a snack, “lunch” a small hot meal, and the “evening meal” a large hot meal. Hot meals (whether small or large) were associated with more hunger before the meal, more enjoyment of the meal, and a greater degree of satiety afterward than were cold meals. These effects suggest that the individuals adjusted their eating habits to fit in with the imposed wake times. By contrast, the effect of circadian phase upon food intake, the type of meal eaten, and subjective responses to the meal was much weaker, and either statistically nonsignificant (P > 0.10) or only marginally so (0.10 > P > 0.05). For example, a large hot meal was chosen as readily for an “evening meal,” and subjective responses to it were the same, at whatever circadian phase it was eaten. We conclude that food intake during forced desynchronization is dominated by the waking schedule rather than by circadian influences; some of the implications of these findings when eating habits and the metabolism of food are concerned, particularly in night workers, are considered briefly.