Cell surface localization of a novel non-genomic progesterone receptor on the head of human sperm

Cell surface receptors for progesterone were visualized in human sperm using fluorescein isothiocyanate-progesterone 3-(O-carboxymethyl) oxime-bovine serum albumin (FITC prog CMO BSA). The receptors were confined to the head and not the midpiece or tail. FITC prog CMO BSA was also an effective stimulus to elevate intracellular free calcium in human sperm as detected by fura-2 fluorescence. The elevation of intracellular free calcium is a stimulus for the acrosome reaction, a process which is necessary to occur for sperm to fertilize the egg. It is proposed that progesterone, which is present in the female reproductive tract, can bind to progesterone receptors located in the plasma membrane of the sperm head and elicit an influx of Ca2+ into the underlying cytoplasm and or acrosome and induce the acrosome reaction and facilitate fertilization.     

Regional heterogeneity of human spermatozoa detected with monoclonal antibodies

The regional antigenic heterogeneity of human spermatozoa is confirmed with 6 monoclonal antibodies raised against ejaculated human spermatozoa. The topographical localization of the antigenic determinants suggests the existence of at least 6 domains on the human spermatozoon. Different fixatives had severe detrimental effects on the antigen-antibody binding. On live human spermatozoa, each antibody bound to a distinct region: acrosome, equatorial segment, entire tail, neck, midpiece and terminal piece. The antigens detected on the acrosome, equatorial segment and entire tail were surface components, whereas the other three were intracellular structures. The determinant present along the entire tail was a sperm-coating antigen. The molecular weights of the recognized antigens were estimated with the Western blot technique. Immunostaining of individual ejaculates established that the percentages of positive cells were 12-56% for the acrosome, 8-35% for the equatorial segment, 90-100% for the entire tail, 20-52% for the neck, 9-35% for the midpiece and 36-90% for the terminal piece. In addition, labelling of motile and immotile spermatozoa showed differences in the percentages of positive cells, with 5 out of 6 monoclonal antibodies, or in the fluorescence intensity, with the last one labelling the entire tail.     

Effects of angiotensin II on the acrosome reaction in equine spermatozoa

Angiotensin II is a hormone with a wide array of physiological effects that exerts its effect via interaction with two major subtypes of receptor. The results of this study show that angiotensin II (from 1 to 100 nmol l(-1)) initiates acrosomal exocytosis in equine spermatozoa that have undergone capacitation in vitro in a TALP-TEST (Tyrode's albumin lactate pyruvate; 188.7 mmol TES l(-1), 84.8 mmol Tris l(-1)) buffer with cAMP. The acrosome reaction and sperm viability were assessed with fluorescein isothiocyanate-Pisum sativum agglutinin (FITC-PSA) and Hoechst 33258, respectively. The initiation of the acrosome reaction by angiotensin II was strongly inhibited by losartan, a specific angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist. Although angiotensin II as well as progesterone both initiated the acrosome reaction in equine spermatozoa, there was no synergistic effect when both agonists were added simultaneously. Initiation of acrosomal exocytosis by angiotensin II was accompanied by a rapid and transient calcium influx that was assessed in capacitated spermatozoa loaded with Fura-2AM. In addition, the angiotensin II-mediated calcium influx was inhibited when spermatozoa were preincubated with losartan. Western blotting with an antibody against angiotensin II type 1 receptor detected a major sperm protein of 60 kDa. Indirect immunofluorescence of non-capacitated spermatozoa with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor antibody revealed labelling in the midpiece and tail. In capacitated spermatozoa, the angiotensin II type 1 receptor was localized mainly over the anterior region of the sperm head, the equatorial segment and occasionally on the postacrosomal region in addition to the sperm tail. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the ability of angiotensin II to stimulate the acrosome reaction in capacitated equine spermatozoa. This effect is mediated via the angiotensin II type 1 receptor and is accompanied by an increase in intracellular calcium.     

Progesterone treatment of boar spermatozoa improves male pronuclear formation after intracytoplasmic sperm injection into porcine oocytes

Boar spermatozoa were prepared for intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) by two different treatments to facilitate sperm chromatin decondensation and improve fertilisation rates after ICSI in pigs: spermatozoa were either frozen and thawed without cryoprotectants, or treated with progesterone. Morphological changes of the sperm heads after the treatments were examined and then the activation of oocytes and the transformation of the sperm nucleus following ICSI were assessed. After freezing and thawing, the plasma membrane and acrosomal contents over the apical region of sperm head were lost in all the spermatozoa. Following treatment with 1 mg/ml progesterone, the acrosome reaction was induced in 61% of spermatozoa. After injection of three types of spermatozoa, non-treated spermatozoa and progesterone-treated (i.e. acrosome-reacted) spermatozoa induced oocyte activation, but frozen-thawed spermatozoa induced oocyte activation at a significantly lower rate. Sixty-two per cent of sperm heads remained orcein-negative for 6 h, however, resulting in delayed sperm chromatin decondensation and low male pronuclear formation in the oocytes injected with a non-treated spermatazoon. Since the treatments of freezing and thawing and progesterone for spermatozoa accelerated the initial change in sperm chromatin and the latter treatment induced oocyte activation earlier, it is considered that the delay in oocyte activation and decondensation of sperm chromatin after injection of non-treated spermatozoa is caused by the existence of the sperm plasma membrane. These results show that progesterone treatment efficiently induces the acrosome reaction in boar spermatozoa without destroying their potency for oocyte activation, and the induction of the acrosome reaction results in the promotion of male pronuclear formation after ICSI.     

Tpx-1 is a component of the outer dense fibers and acrosome of rat spermatozoa

Previously we reported the cloning of a member of the cysteine-rich secretory protein family, tpx-1, from a testis expression library using an outer dense fiber (ODF)-specific antiserum. Using immunohistochemical and immunoelectron microscopic techniques and Western blotting of purified sperm tail components, we have determined that tpx-1 exists as 25 and 27 kDa proteins in two components of rat spermatid: the ODFs and the acrosome. Tpx-1 mRNA is first expressed in the late pachytene spermatocytes, but the production of these tpx-1 proteins is translationally delayed for 4-5 days before being incorporated into the developing sperm acrosome, surrounding the elongating and condensing spermatid nucleus. Concurrent with sperm head formation, tpx-1 protein was incorporated into the developing sperm tail, and specifically the ODFs. The tpx-1 protein was seen within structures resembling granulated bodies in the cytoplasmic lobe of elongating spermatids and was incorporated subsequently into the growing tail in a manner consistent with ODF development. In addition, tpx-1 protein was localized at the ultrastructural level of the connecting piece of the neck and longitudinal columns of the fibrous sheath, suggesting common protein components in these cytoskeletal structures. As such, tpx-1 may have functional significance in the processes of sperm head development and tail function.     

Immunolocation of antisperm monoclonal antibody 6B10 and corresponding antigen

An antisperm monoclonal antibody 6B10 was produced by hybridoma technique of the isotype IgG. The monoclonal antibody was purified by means of ammonium sulfate precipitation and protein A-Sepharose C1-4B affinity chromatography. SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to evaluate the purity of the antibody. Evaluation of the sperm acrosomal status was determined by chlortetracycline (CTC) staining. It was found that monoclonal antibody 6B10 can inhibit the sperm acrosome reaction induced by progesterone. The corresponding antigen recognized by monoclonal antibody 6B10 was located on the plasma membrane of the sperm acrosome by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy and immunoelectronmicroscopy. Sperm protein was extracted by 1% Triton X-100. The molecular weight of the antigen is 50 ku, detected by Western blot. The antigen is a key protein in the sperm acrosome reaction and may be the receptor of progesterone on the sperm acrosome. It may either be developed as a candidate contraceptive vaccine or be used as a tool in pest/rodent management.     

Immunolocation of antisperm monoclonal antibody 6B10 and corresponding antigen

An antisperm monoclonal antibody 6B10 was produced by hybridoma technique of the isotype IgG. The monoclonal antibody was purified by means of ammonium sulfate precipitation and protein A-Sepharose Cl-4B affinity chromatography. SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to evaluate the purity of the antibody. Evaluation of the sperm acrosomal status was determined by chlortetracycline (CTC) staining. It was found that monoclonal antibody 6B10 can inhibit the sperm acrosome reaction induced by progesterone. The corresponding antigen recognized by monoclonal antibody 6B10 was located on the plasma membrane of the sperm acrosome by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy and immunoelectronmicroscopy. Sperm protein was extracted by 1% Triton X-100. The molecular weight of the antigen is 50 ku, detected by Western blot. The antigen is a key protein in the sperm acrosome reaction and may be the receptor of progesterone on the sperm acrosome. It may either be developed as a candidate contraceptive vaccine     

Multiple effects of seminal plasma on the acrosome reaction of human sperm

Mammalian sperm do not respond to inducers of the acrosome reaction immediately after ejaculation. They become responsive after they are removed from seminal plasma and incubated in an appropriate medium. We tested the effects of seminal plasma on the development of acrosomal responsiveness. Washed human sperm incubated 24 hr in vitro with 10% (v/v) seminal plasma did not complete an acrosome reaction when exposed to human follicular fluid, progesterone, or ionomycin. Seminal plasma did not reduce sperm viability or motility. Electron microscopy of sperm incubated 24 hr with 5% seminal plasma and then treated with progesterone revealed no sign of membrane fusion or other changes that are associated with the acrosome reaction. During a 12-hr incubation, seminal plasma was 50% effective at inhibiting the acrosomal response to progesterone when diluted 821 ± 112 foid (mean ±SD, n = 3). Sperm that were incubated with seminal plasma for 24 hr and then washed free of the seminal plasma became acrosomally responsive over the following 24 hr, at a rate similar to that of sperm not incubated with seminal plasma in vitro. When sperm were incubated 6 hr without seminal plasma and then seminal plasma was added, the sperm population transiently became more responsive to progesterone, and then became unresponsive. During incubation in vitro, the ability of sperm to have an augmented response to a mixture of seminal plasma plus progesterone developed slightly earlier and more rapidly than ability to respond to progesterone alone. When sperm were incubated 24 hr without seminal plasma, a few acrosome reacted in response to the addition of seminal plasma alone. Therefore, depending on how it is applied, seminal plasma can prevent or reverse the development of acrosomal responsiveness, and it can enhance or induce the acrosome reaction. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

C-kit receptor and its possible function in human spermatozoa

The presence and role of the c-kit proto-oncogene protein was investigated in the mature sperm of the human. A polyclonal antibody against the c-kit peptide was used to perform immunohistochemical (IHC) staining, electron microscopy (EM) studies, and Western blot analysis. The acrosomal region of fresh sperm specifically stained with the antibody. No acrosomal staining or staining limited to the equatorial region was noted in the acrosome-reacted (AR) sperm. EM studies demonstrated immunogold label on the plasma membrane (PM) of the acrosome, and confirmed the lack of binding following the acrosome reaction. A 150 kDa band was detected by Western blot analysis. This protein was released from the sperm surface during sperm capacitation and the acrosome reaction. Antibody against the c-kit receptor significantly inhibited the acrosome reaction and increased sperm agglutination, but did not significantly inhibit sperm motility. These results suggest that the c-kit receptor protein is present in mature human sperm and is released during capacitation and/or the acrosome reaction. The assessment of the c-kit receptor may also be a useful assay for sperm function in male infertility.     

Effect of antibodies to sperm-specific recombinant contraceptive vaccinogen (rCV) on murine fertilization: search for an animal model to examine its contraceptive potential

Recently, we cloned and sequenced a sperm-specific antigen, designated as Contraceptive Vaccinogen (rCV), from human testis (Naz et al., 2001). The present study was conducted to examine its proteomic homologue and function in murine sperm, in order to find out whether or not the mouse can provide a suitable model for examining its immunocontraceptive effects. This was examined by using purified antibodies (Ab) raised against the recombinant (r) human CV antigen of approximately 44 kD. In the Western blot procedure, rCV antibodies recognized a specific protein band of approximately 64 +/- 5 kD in murine testis and murine sperm extracts, the band similar to that found in human testis and human sperm. In the immunoprecipitation procedure, rCV Ab immunoprecipitated a protein band of similar size from murine sperm and murine testis extracts. The immunocytochemical (ICT), immunoscanning electronmicroscopic (ISEM) and the immunobead binding technique (IBT) revealed the subcellular localization of CV antigen on the surface of acrosome and tail regions of the noncapacitated and capacitated murine sperm cell. In functional bioassays, rCV Ab inhibited the acrosome reaction as well as sperm-egg binding in vitro. These data indicate that the CV antigen is expressed in murine sperm and has a biological role in sperm function and sperm-egg binding. In vitro inhibition of capacitation/acrosome reaction and sperm-zona binding suggest that the mouse can provide a suitable model to examine the immunocontraceptive effects of CV antigen in actively-immunized animals.     

Nongenomic progesterone receptor on human spermatozoa: biochemical aspects and clinical implications.

Progesterone (P) is a physiological stimulus of human sperm functions. It is present in high levels at the site of fertilization (cumulus oophorus) and has been described to affect several sperm functions, including motility, capacitation, acrosome reaction, and the ability to bind and to respond to zona proteins. The effects of the steroid are mediated essentially by an increase of intracellular calcium concentrations, stimulation of activity of phospholipases, phosphorylation of proteins, efflux of chloride. These effects are due to activation of a rapid, nongenomic pathway. Whether the effects of progesterone are mediated or not by specific interactions with sperm membrane proteins is questioned. By using an antibody directed against the C-terminal region (P-binding region) of the genomic receptor, we have recently identified two sperm proteins with molecular weights distinct from the classic genomic receptors. In addition, ligand blot analysis with peroxidase-conjugated P demonstrated that P specifically binds these two proteins. Classical ligand binding experiments demonstrated the presence of two specific binding sites with affinity in the nanomolar and in the micromolar range, respectively. The involvement of progesterone in the physiological process leading to fertilization of the oocyte is suggested by several studies. In particular, the demonstration that sperm responsiveness to progesterone is impaired in subfertile patients and that is strictly correlated to the ability of fertilizing the oocyte represents a further indication of the participation of the steroid in this process. In addition, the determination of sperm responsiveness may be predictive of fertilizing ability with a positive predictive value of 90% and can be clinically useful for the preliminary assessment of the male partner to select the appropriate assisted reproductive technique.     

Calpactin-like proteins in human spermatozoa

Polyclonal antibodies directed against human calpactin I (p36) and calpactin II (p35) have been employed to investigate the distribution of calpactin-like proteins in human spermatozoa. Calpactins are a family of Ca2+-regulated cytoskeletal proteins that are major substrates of oncogene and growth factor receptor protein tyrosine kinases. The existence of a Triton-soluble 37-kDa protein antigenically related to calpactin II from somatic cells was revealed by Western blot analysis of human sperm extracts. The 37-kDa protein was not released from spermatozoa after experimental induction of the acrosome reaction by A23187 and Ca2+. Treatment of sperm homogenates with an EGTA-containing buffer partially solubilized the 37-kDa protein from the corpuscolate matter. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy showed that anticalpactin II binds specifically to the sperm tail and to a band-like structure encircling the sperm head at the equatorial segment. In contrast, antibodies to calpactin I were found to bind to the tail midpiece, but failed to bind to Western blots of sperm proteins. This is the first immunological and biochemical report on the presence of calpactin proteins in a germ cell, the human spermatozoon.     

Differential sensitivity of progesterone- and zona pellucida-induced acrosome reactions to pertussis toxin

Pertussis toxin-sensitive guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G proteins) have previously been shown to mediate the zona pellucida-induced acrosome reaction in mammalian sperm. In this study we compared the inhibitory effect of pertussis toxin on the zona-induced acrosome reaction in human spermatozoa with that on the reaction induced by progesterone, another physiological acrosome reaction-promoting stimulus associated with the ovulated oocyte. Up to the concentration of 1 μg/ml, pertussis toxin did not produce any direct effects on the acrosome reaction frequency nor did it influence sperm movement and viability. However, preincubation of spermatozoa with the toxin at a concentration of 100 ng/ml completely abolished the increase in the acrosome reaction frequency upon subsequent exposure to solubilized zona pellucida material. In contrast, the same treatment did not impair the ability of spermatozoa to initiate the acrosome reaction in response to progesterone. Moreover, the preincubation with pertussis toxin did not modify the changes in the intracellular concentration of calcium ions occurring after progesterone addition. These data suggest that different physiological stimuli may utilize different signal transduction pathways to induce the human sperm acrosome reaction. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The laminin-induced acrosome reaction in human sperm is mediated by Src kinases and the proteasome

The aim of this work was to determine whether laminin (Ln), an extracellular matrix protein, induces the intracellular events that may be involved in producing the acrosome reaction in human sperm. To this end, we evaluated the effect of Ln on tyrosine phosphorylation, intracellular calcium concentration, proteasome activity, and phosphorylation in human sperm. Aliquots of highly motile sperm selected with a Percoll gradient, were incubated with different concentrations of Ln (0-20 μg/ml) for different periods (0-18 h). The percentage of viable acrosome-reacted sperm was evaluated using fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled Pisum sativum agglutinin and Hoechst 33258 DNA dye. Tyrosine phosphorylation was evaluated by Western blot analysis. The chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome was evaluated with a fluorogenic peptide, and intracellular calcium concentration was measured with fura-2. The results indicate that Ln stimulated the acrosome reaction of human sperm in a dose-dependent manner. This increase was drastically inhibited in the presence of herbimycin A, SU6656, and epoxomicin. In addition, Ln increased proteasome activity and phosphorylation; both events were inhibited by herbimycin A and SU6656. Finally, Ln induced an increase in intracellular calcium concentration, which was inhibited by SU6656 and epoxomicin. These results suggest that Ln is able to induce the acrosome reaction. This effect may be mediated by Src kinase and the proteasome, with the consequent induction of a calcium influx.     

Dephosphorylated NSSR1 is induced by androgen in mouse epididymis and phosphorylated NSSR1 is increased during sperm maturation

NSSR1 (Neural salient serine/arginine rich protein 1, alternatively SRp38) is a newly identified RNA splicing factor and predominantly expressed in neural tissues. Here, by Western blot analysis and immunofluorescent staining, we showed that the expression of dephosphorylated NSSR1 increased significantly during development of the caput epididymis. In adult mice, phosphorylated NSSR1 was mainly expressed in the apical side of epithelial cells, and dephosphorylated NSSR1 in caput epididymis was upregulated in a testosterone dependent manner. In addition, subcellular immunoreactive distribution of NSSR1 varied in different regions of the epididymis. With respect to the sperm, phosphorylated NSSR1 was detected in the mid-piece of the tail as well as the acrosome. Furthermore, NSSR1 was released from the sperm head during the capacitation and acrosome reaction. These findings for the first time provide the evidence for the potential roles of NSSR1 in sperm maturation and fertilization.     

SNARE complex assembly is required for human sperm acrosome reaction

Exocytosis of the acrosome (the acrosome reaction) is a terminal morphological alteration that sperm must undergo prior to penetration of the extracellular coat of the egg. Ca(2+) is an essential mediator of this regulated secretory event. Aided by a streptolysin-O permeabilization protocol developed in our laboratory, we have previously demonstrated requirements for Rab3A, NSF, and synaptotagmin VI in the human sperm acrosome reaction. Interestingly, Rab3A elicits an exocytotic response of comparable magnitude to that of Ca(2+). Here, we report a direct role for the SNARE complex in the acrosome reaction. First, the presence of SNARE proteins is demonstrated by Western blot. Second, the Ca(2+)-triggered acrosome reaction is inhibited by botulinum neurotoxins BoNT/A, -E, -C, and -F. Third, antibody inhibition studies show a requirement for SNAP-25, SNAP-23, syntaxins 1A, 1B, 4, and 6, and VAMP 2. Fourth, addition of bacterially expressed SNAP-25 and SNAP-23 abolishes exocytosis. Acrosome reaction elicited by Rab3-GTP is also inhibited by BoNT/A, -C, and -F. Taken together, these results demonstrate a requirement for members of all SNARE protein families in the Ca(2+)- and Rab3A-triggered acrosome reaction. Furthermore, they indicate that the onset of sperm exocytosis relies on the functional assembly of SNARE complexes.     

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)gamma is expressed by human spermatozoa: its potential role on the sperm physiology

The peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) is mainly expressed in the adipose tissue and integrates the control of energy, lipid, and glucose homeostasis. The present study, by means of RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence techniques, demonstrates that human sperm express the PPARgamma. The functionality of the receptor was evidenced by 15-deoxy-12,14-prostaglandin J(2) (PGJ2) and rosiglitazone (BRL) PPARgamma-agonists that were tested on capacitation, acrosome reaction, and motility. Both treatments also increase AKT phosphorylations and influence glucose and lipid metabolism in sperm. The specificity of PGJ2 and BRL effects through PPARgamma on human sperm was confirmed by an irreversible PPARgamma antagonist, GW9662. Our findings provide evidence that human sperm express a functional PPARgamma whose activation influences sperm physiology. In conclusion, the presence of PPARgamma in male gamete broadens the field of action of this nuclear receptor, bringing us to look towards sperm as an endocrine mobile unit independent of the systemic regulation.     

Comparison of the ability of progesterone and heat solubilized porcine zona pellucida to initiate the porcine sperm acrosome reaction in vitro

It has been previously shown that progesterone can initiate the acrosome reaction (AR) of capacitated human and hamster sperm in vivo. We report here that progesterone can initiate a morphologically normal AR in porcine sperm that have undergone capacitation in a Hepes-buffered medium in vitro. In addition, we have compared the abilities of progesterone and heat-solubilized porcine zona pellucida (zona) to initiate the porcine sperm AR. Capacitated porcine sperm were treated with 1 m?g/ml progesterone, 150 m?g/ml porcine zona, or solvent control for 10 min. After treatment, sperm were incubated with the supravital dye Hoechst 33258, fixed and the acrosomal status determined in the previously viable sperm by fluorescence microscopy with fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled Pisum sativum agglutini (FITC-PSA). There was no significant difference between the percentage of AR initiated by zona compared to that initiated by progesterone. In order to determine whether there was a synergistic interaction between the two AR initiators, both were added simultaneously to capacitated porcine sperm at optimal (1 m?g/ml progesterone, 150 m?g/ml zona) and suboptimal (75 ng/ml progesterone and 75 m?g/ml zona) concentrations. Simultaneous addition of the two AR-initiators at the two concentrations stimulated an additive AR-initating response, rather than a synergistic one. Several possible explanations for the additive results are discussed. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.