MARGARINE: THE DRIVERS OF LIKING AND IMAGE

This paper presents a study of the attributes of margarine, showing the depth of information about consumer perceptions and drivers of liking that emerges from a detailed analysis of relations among attributes. The paper develops three sets of analyses to understand relations among attributes: principal components analysis in order to identify basic dimensions of perception, linear functions relating overall liking to attribute liking or to image ratings in order to identify drivers of liking, and quadratic functions that relate overall liking or image ratings to sensory attribute levels in order to identify optimal sensory levels and to create sensory preference segments. The analyses show how consumer data can generate learning about the consumer perceptions on the one hand, and guidance for product development.     

IMPORTANCE OF SENSORY FACTORS IN PROCESSED SEAFOOD: METHODS AND RESULTS1

This paper considers “importance” of sensory attributes from the consumer point of view, with emphasis on processed seafood. There are three key measures of importance. Attitudinal importance measures what consumers think to be important and refers to general opinions about the category. Sensory system importance measures how strongly different sensory inputs (e.g., appearance, aroma, taste, texture) “drive” overall liking, and show the key sensory inputs to which consumers attend. Attribute level importance measures the relation between sensory intensity and overall liking for each attribute. It shows which specific attributes drive liking, how liking varies with the specific sensory attribute, and whether (and at what sensory level) there exists an optimal level.     

EXPERTS VERSUS CONSUMERS: A COMPARISON

This paper compares experts and consumers to determine the degree to which they agree with each other on ratings of 37 sauce products, using the same sensory attributes. The paper also assesses the degree to which sensory attribute ratings correlate with objective physical measures. The ratings of experts (1-9 scale) and consumers (0–100 scale) agree quite highly, as shown by the high correlation between the two panels across the 37 products. The paper refutes the notion that consumers are incapable of validly rating the sensory aspects of products. The paper therefore presents the case for using consumers to assess the sensory characteristics of products.     

COMPARISON OF ATTRIBUTE LIKING AND JAR SCALES TO EVALUATE THE ADEQUACY OF SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF MILK DESSERTS

Just-about-right (JAR) scales and attribute liking questions are usually used to study consumer perception of the sensory characteristics of food products. The aim of the present work was to compare the performance of attribute liking and JAR scales to evaluate consumers' perceived adequacy of flavor and texture of milk puddings. Two groups of consumers were asked to evaluate eight milk desserts using (1) overall liking followed by attribute liking for texture and flavor and (2) overall liking followed by JAR scales for thickness, creaminess, sweetness and vanilla flavor. Overall liking scores were significantly different when JAR scales or attribute liking questions were considered. Texture, flavor and overall liking scores were highly correlated to each other, providing the same information. JAR scales correlated better with the intensity of sensory attributes evaluated by a trained sensory panel, being JAR percentages a reliable tool to study the adequacy of sensory attributes.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Results from the present work showed that consumers might not be able to independently evaluate their liking of different sensory attributes of a product. For this reason, the use of attribute liking questions for studying the adequacy of sensory attributes in complex products would not be recommended. JAR scales were better indicators of the adequacy of sensory attributes. Consumers were able to independently evaluate texture and flavor attributes using JAR scales. However, the influence of JAR scales on overall liking scores should be taken into account when including these scales on consumer studies.     

A THURSTONE-COOMBS MODEL OF CONCURRENT RATINGS WITH SENSORY AND LIKING DIMENSIONS

A popular product testing procedure is to obtain sensory intensity and liking ratings from the same consumers. Consumers are instructed to attend to the sensory attribute, such as sweetness, when generating their liking response. We propose a new model of this concurrent ratings task that conjoins a unidimensional Thurstonian model of the ratings on the sensory dimension with a probabilistic version of Coombs' (1964) unfolding model for the liking dimension. The model assumes that the sensory characteristic of the product has a normal distribution over consumers. An individual consumer selects a sensory rating by comparing the perceived value on the sensory dimension to a set of criteria that partitions the axis into intervals. Each value on the rating scale is associated with a unique interval. To rate liking, the consumer imagines an ideal product, then computes the discrepancy or distance between the product as perceived by the consumer and this imagined ideal. A set of criteria are constructed on this discrepancy dimension that partition the axis into intervals. Each interval is associated with a unique liking rating. The ideal product is assumed to have a univariate normal distribution over consumers on the sensory attribute evaluated. The model is shown to account for 94.2% of the variance in a set of sample data and to fit this data significantly better than a bivariate normal model of the data (concurrent ratings, Thurstonian scaling, Coombs' unfolding model, sensory and liking ratings).     

INTERRELATIONS AMONG LIKING ATTRIBUTES FOR APPLE PIE: RESEARCH APPROACHES AND PRAGMATIC VIEWPOINTS

Liking is a key measure for applied product development. All too often, however, the liking attributes are simply reported, but other than analyzing overall liking ratings no other analysis is done on the ratings. Much more remains for applied product testers to learn from these liking attributes. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the interrelations among different liking attributes for apple pie. It shows that panelists discriminate among samples using different liking scales, but many of these scales correlate with each other creating a great deal of redundancy in the list of attributes. Factor analysis reveals one major dimension for liking of the entire pie, and three dimensions for liking of slices. A different way of analysis shows potentially more utility for developers. A linear model relating overall liking to each attribute liking reveals different slopes, suggesting different importance levels for the attribute liking scales. Furthermore, one can create an integrated liking model. The liking ratings can be combined into a single, overall product model, allowing the researcher to understand how changes in one liking attribute simultaneously affect all other liking attributes.     

WHAT SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS DRIVE PRODUCT QUALITY? AN ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Consumers differ dramatically in their sensory preferences for products. This paper assesses the relative importance of appearance, taste/flavor and texture as characteristics that drive acceptance for a complex pie product. The paper classifies consumers as being driven by one or more sensory attributes in their judgment of product quality. To do so, each consumer's liking rating is regressed against each separate attribute liking. The coefficient (M) of the linear equation "Overall Liking = M (Attribute Liking) + B" measures the relative importance of the sensory attribute as a driver of overall quality.     

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FRANKFURTERS1

Consumers want meat products that are healthful and affordable. However, consumers will repurchase a product only if it tastes good. Consumers identified reasons for purchasing frankfurters and evaluated overall acceptability of 10 commercially available frankfurters. Consumers listed “taste” as the most important factor when purchasing frankfurters; only 16% of the consumers indicated that nutrition/health was the most important criterion. Nineteen consumer-perceived sensory and liking attributes were measured for the frankfurters in this study. The intensities of the attributes ranged from low to moderately high. All the frankfurters scored in the low to moderate range for overall acceptability. Most of the scores for liking of individual attributes correlated highly with overall liking, indicating that many of the questions relating to attribute liking could be eliminated.     

SENSORY PROPERTIES AFFECTING ACCEPTABILITY OF "BRESAOLA" FROM PODOLIAN YOUNG BULLS

Three muscles ( Semimembranosus, Quadriceps femoris, Adductor ) from Podolian young bulls (aged 18 months) were processed into bresaolas, which were compared with commercial products, in terms of sensory profile and preference expressed by consumers. Slope analysis was conducted to study the preference drivers. The preference of homogeneous groups of consumers and the relationships with sensory properties of bresaola were investigated using partial least squares (PLS) regression analysis. The products differed for several sensory properties, such as sweetness, flavor intensity ( P <  0.001), saltiness ( P <  0.01), peppered, seasoned and tenderness ( P <  0.05). The slope analysis showed that taste/flavor ( k =  0.86) and appearance ( k =  0.76) play an important role in orienting consumer preference, while texture ( k =  0.54) is less important. No general trend was found for product liking. Conversely, PLS regression clustered the consumers in homogeneous groups: one preferred the commercial products characterized by sensory properties such as peppered, saltiness, seasoned and marbling, another one was more oriented toward properties such as sweetness, odor and chewiness, which characterized Podolian bresaolas.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Partial least squares regression analysis clustered the consumers in homogeneous groups according to their liking: those preferring peppered, salty, seasoned and marbling bresaolas versus those oriented toward sweet and odorous products. In addition, the relationship between overall liking and attribute liking (appearance, taste/flavor and texture) was analyzed by linear regression analysis. This may be helpful in order to establish meaningful criteria for grading bresaolas and identify the particular attributes that move its acceptance (i.e., taste/flavor and appearance rather than texture).     

INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION/PROFESSION OF MEXICAN CONSUMERS ON ACCEPTANCE AND PURCHASE INTENT OF CORN TORTILLA

Influence of education/profession of Mexican consumers on acceptance and purchase intent of corn tortillas was evaluated. Two groups of 150 Mexican consumers each (faculty/graduate students [A] versus field laborers [B]) rated sensory acceptability of corn tortillas. Acceptance and purchase intent were rated using a binomial scale. Group B had higher expectations towards corn tortillas as indicated by lower acceptability ratings. Both groups used rollability, resistance-to-tearing, and chewiness to differentiate tortilla samples, but group B paid more attention to these attributes as indicated by higher canonical correlation values. Acceptance was influenced by overall liking for both groups; chewiness and taste were also significant for group B. Purchase intent was influenced by overall liking and taste for both groups, but color for group A, and appearance and chewiness for group B were also critical. This study demonstrated that education/profession of Mexican consumers affected their acceptance and purchase intent of corn tortillas.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

This study revealed that education/profession of Mexican consumers affected acceptance and purchase intent of corn tortillas. Two groups of consumers with different levels of education had different expectation toward tortillas when making purchase decision. Understanding how each consumer segment differently perceives about the tortilla product will give marketers and manufacturers a better direction for developing tortilla products with expected sensory qualities.     

SENSORY DIRECTIONALS FOR PIZZA: A DEEPER ANALYSIS

This paper presents a set of analyses on sensory directional attributes used to rate experimentally designed pizza products. Consumers may or may not know the 'optimal' sensory level of attributes for pizza, so that the usefulness of the sensory directional varies by attribute. Furthermore, the sensory magnitude of each sensory directional attribute varies, as shown by the slope (B) relating the two attributes (Sensory Magnitude = A + B (Directional Rating)). The study incorporated sensory directionals into evaluation of products varied according to an experimental design. The optimal product emerging from the design does not necessarily exhibit a sensory directional profile where all attributes are 'on target', nor does a product whose sensory attributes are all on 'target' exhibit the highest level of liking.     

CATEGORY APPRAISAL WITHIN A LIMITED PRODUCT RANGE: A METHODS-ORIENTED CASE HISTORY

This paper presents the author's approach to synthesizing useful direction from product testing when the stimuli are not systematically varied. The approach presented here comprises a research design and data analysis strategy, rather than a conventional product optimization with subsequent validation. The design steps comprise stimulus selection, attribute selection, and product evaluation. The data analysis comprises univariate modeling to show how sensory attributes drive overall liking, reduction of the matrix to factor scores for multivariate modeling, and then the creation of an integrated product model. The outcome is a set of factor scores that can be translated to sensory attributes and in turn to target products.     

SENSORY PROPERTIES AND CONSUMER PERCEPTION OF 'HOME-MADE'AND COMMERCIAL DAIRY ICE CREAM

Sensory properties and consumer perception of 2 'home-made'and 4 commercial dairy ice creams were examined. Conventional profiling by a trained panel found that most samples differed significantly in all attributes, but distinction of 'home-made'from commercial products was limited to few attributes. Principal component analysis separated the 'home-made'products from the commercial ones mainly on the basis of differences in appearance, aroma, creamy flavors and textural attributes. A consumer group (n=105) recorded preconception of 'home-made'ice cream acceptance, then received the product samples, in unlabeled condition, for assessment of degree of liking (DOL) and for identification as 'home-made'or commercial. Internal preference mapping of the DOL ratings showed that consumers were more closely grouped around samples which had higher intensities of certain attributes. Higher 'denseness', 'vanilla'aroma and 'buttery'flavor, were associated with more liking for commercial products. The 'home-made'high fat sample, although liked, tended to be grouped with commercial products. More marked textural attributes of 'ice crystals'and 'breakage'aided identification of the low-fat 'home-made'formulation, which was less liked overall. Overall, differences between the 'home-made'and commercial samples were small but consumer perception of the term 'home-made'was viewed favorably for dairy ice cream.     

Odor psychophysics and sensory engineering

This paper illustrates the utilization of psychophysical scalingand optimization technology to accomplish two goals. First,by means of ‘goal programming’ the odor scientistcan interrelate chemicals and odor qualities, specify a desiredprofile of odor qualities and determine that combination ofodorants which come as close as possible to generating thatdesired profile. Second, by means of non-linear optimization,the scientist can determine the relation between chemical concentrationsand liking, and furthermore ascertain that combination of chemicalconcentrations which generate maximal liking ratings, subjectto constraints. Constraints include chemical concentrationslying within prespecified limits, and sensory perceptions lyingwithin specific bounds. Mixtures of butyric acid and pulegoneillustrate the approach.     

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSUMER PREFERENCES AND TRAINED PANEL RESPONSES

Eight samples of dried tomato soups were profiled by a trained panel, who also provided ratings of overall liking and liking for particular attributes on relative-to-ideal rating scales. A consumer panel tested a subset of four of the soups in home trials, assessing them for overall liking and for particular attributes on either hedonic or relative-to-ideal rating scales. The pattern of overall preferences differed between the trained and untrained panelists, demonstrating the inappropriateness of using trained panelists to provide measures of preference or acceptance. The conclusions regarding consumer preferences would differ depending on which rating scale was used; these differences disappeared when the relative-to-ideal ratings were converted into values of the same form as the hedonic ratings. The overall liking was best predicted by flavor rather than color or thickness. A principal components analysis (PCA) of the profile data compared well with a plot based on the trained panel preference data using MDPREF. The preference data were also fitted to the PCA dimensions using the PREMAP vector model, which gave a good fit for only six of the 15 trained panelists; the PREMAP ideal point model failed to show a better fit. In order to test these models adequately more than eight samples would need to be tested.     

MAPPING THE EFFECT OF INFORMATION ABOUT ANIMAL WELFARE ON CONSUMER LIKING AND WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR YOGURT

Preference mapping identified different groups of consumers on the basis of their disconfirmations (occurring when the product is either better or worse than expected) and assimilations (occurring when actual liking [L] moves toward the expectations). The negative disconfirmation of a group of consumers (Group 1) was based on the information about animal welfare (the products were worse than expected because the information about animal welfare induced high expectations), whereas in Group 2 the sensory properties of the products prevailed in orienting consumer disconfirmation (products were worse than expected because the sensory properties of low-fat yogurt were disliked). The map of assimilation showed that consumers from Group 1 had higher assimilation for plain yogurt associated with high welfare standards as a consequence of the high discrepancy between blind and expected L for these products. A similar behavior was observed for Group 2 (higher discrepancy between blind and expected L corresponding to higher assimilation for low-fat yogurt paired with high welfare standards).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Consumers based their choices both on sensory properties (plain yogurts were preferred to low-fat yogurts) and on information about animal welfare (products associated with high welfare standards were preferred to the others). Preference mapping was able to identify groups of consumers behaving differently, as compared with the general trend, on the basis of their disconfirmations and assimilations.
Consumer willingness to pay reflected the hedonic behavior, thus validating the auction procedure for food liking evaluation purposes and providing a useful tool to obtain information about the real value (i.e., in monetary terms) consumers give to animal welfare.