Spousal age-gaps,partner preferences,and consequences for well-being in four Colombian communities

Across cultures, women tend to marry older men. This phenomenon is commonly described as the result of evolved mate choice preferences, which cause men to base reproductive decisions on cues of youth and fertility in women, and women to base such decisions on cues of wealth and status in men. Other researchers have challenged this idea, arguing that husband-older spousal age-gaps might not be consistent with the joint preferences of men and women; age-gaps might instead arise as the result of sexual conflict. In such cases, the realized age-gap could benefit one party at a cost to the other. In practice, large age-gaps may result in negative outcomes for younger women married to older men—e.g., because of power differences in these relationships. Testing for the existence of sexual conflict over the size of the spousal age-gap in Tanzania, researchers found no evidence that large age-gaps are harmful to women. Here, we conceptually replicate this previous work, and assess the relationship between spousal age-gaps, partner preferences, and individual well-being in four communities in Colombia. We extend prior methods by inferring the size of idealized age-gaps using network structured mate-choice games, and measuring the realized age-gap directly among ever-married partners. Our analyses suggest that there is limited evidence of sexual conflict over the size of the spousal age-gap in these communities. First, realized age-gaps are not large on average—around 1–7 years across communities. Second, the age-gaps that do exist are consistent with the preferences of both men and women—at least during their early to middle reproductive periods. And, lastly, large age-gaps are not negatively associated with measures of fertility or well-being for either sex. Our results underscore the importance of appreciating the cultural context within which behavioral practices with potentially negative consequences are situated.     

Gender,Ethnicity, Marital Status,and Body Weight in the United States

Married individuals tend to be heavier than those who are unmarried, particularly men, and individuals in different ethnic categories vary in their involvement in marriage and in their body weights. We examined gender and ethnic differences in relationships between marital status and body weight using cross‐sectional data from the 1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) for 3,947 women and 4,019 men. The findings revealed that compared to married men in the same ethnic category, white divorced men, black never‐married men, and all Hispanic men except for widows had lower odds of being overweight. Compared to married women in the same ethnic category, white women's weights did not significantly differ by marital status, black separated women had greater odds of being overweight, and Hispanic never‐married women had lower odds of being overweight. Associations of marriage with body weight appear to be at least partly contingent upon gender and ethnicity, which may reflect larger societal patterns of involvement in marriage, commitment to family, and body‐weight norms and expectations.     

Hogere eenzaamheid onder Marokkaanse en Turkse ouderen in Nederland: Op zoek naar een verklaring

The prevalence of loneliness among Turkish- and Moroccan-Dutch older adults is higher than among Dutch older adults of non-migrant origin. Two explanations may account for this difference. (1) The meaning of the concept may differ, or there is differential item functioning. This might result in scores that not only differ in intensity but also in meaning across groups. (2) The position of older migrants is much more vulnerable than of non-migrant older people. Data from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam were used to examine support for both explanations. Feelings of loneliness are explored among 176 people born in Morocco and 235 people born in Turkey, aged 55–66 years, and living in urban areas. They migrated on average 35 years ago to the Netherlands. They are compared with a matched sample of 292 older people of Dutch origin. The psychometric properties of the loneliness scale are satisfying, although there is some differential item functioning. Older migrants have more frequent social contacts, but are at a disadvantage in other domains. Taking into account differences in social participation, satisfaction with their income, mastery and depressive symptoms, the difference between older migrants’ and non-migrants’ loneliness is reduced to more than half. Being an older migrant and belonging to a minority might further contribute to feelings of loneliness. Interventions should not be directed at stimulating social contact, but rather, for example, at enhancing the appreciation of their social status and at avoiding negative interpretations of the situation.     

Fertility and patterns of labor force participation among married women

Abstract

Past research has shown that the labor market behavior of wives is discontinuous and affected by family events. Specifically, both cross‐sectional and panel data indicate that fertility decreases the period that a married woman spends working. Each birth appears to decrease labor force participation by one year or more. The present study attempts to specify these effects more completely. The variation in work patterns for each parity progression is examined to determine whether the fertility‐work effect is due to a few women who leave the labor force for an extended period during childbearing or due to a large number of women who have intermittent work histories. The analysis uses a national sample of women who were high school sophomores in 1955 and followed up as adults in 1970 and for whom retrospective data for each of the intervening years were obtained. Only married women with uncomplicated marital histories are included in the present study. We find dramatic evidence for two distinct types of response to childbearing. Women tend either to work almost continuously throughout the period or to drop out of the labor force for a very extended period of time after first birth.     

Effect of changes in physical capacities upon personal social network in aging people

The aim of the research is to assess whether there is change in the size and composition of older adults' personal network. Furthermore, change in contact frequency and received instrumental support within the relationships is studied. Five relationship types are distinguished: children, other kin, friends, neighbors and acquaintances. Older adults with a decline in physical capacity are compared with those with stable and increased capacities. Furthermore, differences according to (change in) partner status and age are investigated. Data are from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam, including the first and fourth observation of 1634 older adults living independently. The observation interval is 7 years. A decline in physical capacities is observed for 35% of the older adults, the capacities are stable for 60% and an increase is observed for 5% of the respondents. In general, network size and composition did not change. The frequency of contact within the relationships decreased. Decline was considerable for parent-child relationships, but relatively modest among older adults who faced a moderate to strong physical decline. However, among older adults who did not have a partner at the fourth observation and among the oldest (> 75 years) the frequency of contact with children increased, independently of the degree of physical decline. The decline in contact with neighbours was nearly absent for older adults who faced a moderate to strong physical decline; the contact increased when there was no partner at the fourth observation. The instrumental support received increased within all relationship types, independently of the degree of physical decline. It is concluded that research into determinants of the decline and increase in parent-child contacts is needed and that the meaning of neighbours should receive attention.     

Sex differences in indirect aggression: Psychological evidence from young adults

Many studies have found differences in the types of aggression used by males and females, at least in children and adolescents. Boys tend to use direct physical or verbal aggression, whereas girls tend to use more indirect forms of aggression that prominently feature gossip. Evolutionary theories of sex differences in indirect aggression propose selection pressures that would have acted on older teenagers and adults. Evidence for sex differences in indirect aggression in adults, however, is equivocal. Virtually all studies of adults have found a sex difference in physical aggression, but most have failed to find sex differences in the use of the more indirect forms of aggression. Almost all of these studies have measured indirect aggression using self-reports of aggressive behavior. We investigated sex differences in the psychology of indirect aggression by exposing young adult women and men to the same aggression-evoking stimulus. As evolutionary models predict, we found that women had a stronger desire than men to aggress indirectly, even after controlling for perceptions of social norms and approval. Future work on both evolutionary and social norm models of indirect aggression is warranted.     

Sex and age differences in preferences and tactics of mate attraction: Analysis of published advertisements

Using the theoretical perspective of evolutionary biology, 13 hypotheses were generated concerning sex and age differences in human mate preferences and tactics of mate attraction. Classified “lonely hearts” advertisements (N = 1,000) from a nationally circulated, fortnightly magazine were content-analyzed. Men, more than women, sought cues to reproductive value (i.e., physical appearance and youth), whereas women, more than men, sought cues revealing an ability to acquire resources (i.e., actual and potential financial security and older men). Women also sought to ascertain a man's willingness to provide resources (in the form of time, emotions, money, and status) in a relationship. Both sexes offered those traits sought by the opposite sex. Men were more promiscuously inclined than women, favoring casual relationships and being more likely to be married, whereas women sought long-term monogamous relationships. These differences support evolutionary predictions based on concepts of sexual selection, parental investment, and reproductive capacities and confirm the use of personal advertisements as a valuable method of research.     

Contraceptive practice of Irish married and single first-time mothers

This study surveys 100 married and 100 unmarried primiparous mothers, attending the National Maternity Hospital, Dublin, with regard to their contraceptive practice, their planning of their pregnancy and the timing of their first antenatal visit. Nineteen per cent of the married women, but 64% of the unmarried women, had never used any contraceptive method. The contraceptive pill was the most popular method for both groups, but while three in five of the married women had at some time used the pill, only a little more than one in five of the unmarried women had ever used it. One quarter of the women who had used contraception reported that their pregnancy was the result of a failure in their contraceptive method. Eighty-nine per cent of the single group and 20% of the married had not planned their pregnancy. None of the married women, but almost a quarter of the single, delayed their first antenatal visit until after they were 20 weeks pregnant.     

A genetic study of syndactyly in Utah

Abstract

Pregnancy histories of 470 ever‐married women aged 40 years and older from three endogamous groups of marine fishermen of Puri, Orissa, are analyzed to estimate Crow's index of opportunity for selection. All these populations are migrants. The value of I ranges from 0.63 to 1.08. The results are interpreted in the light of their ethno‐historical, migratory backgrounds, degree of isolation, and population sizes. A comparison with published Indian data is also made.     

Mortality and age differences in marriage.

Data from the 1971 census population were used to evaluate the effects of age differences of married partners on mortality rates. Different age groups were isolated to highlight the association between mortality and age of spouse for specific ages of married men and women. Men married to much younger or to older women exhibited a higher mortality rate than men married to women who were only a few years younger than themselves. A similar trend was observed among women married to much younger or much older men compared with those whose spouses were a few years older or of similar ages as themselves. Trends for other age groups (women aged 60-69 years, men below 40, and women below 30) did not exhibit a clear pattern. Although statistical biases within age groups may in part account for the differences in the findings, the trend which emerged from the analysis suggests that lower morbidity is associated with the most common age combinations (husbands same age or slightly older than wives). Other factors could also account for the differences (e.g., selection of healthy partners in 1st marriages, differences in lifestyles between married and single).     

For better or worse: Relationship status and body mass index

Recent increases in the incidence of obesity and declines in marriage have prompted policymakers to implement policies to mitigate these trends. This paper examines the link between these two outcomes. There are four hypotheses (selection, protection, social obligation and marriage market) that might explain the relationship between marital status transitions and changes in Body Mass Index (BMI). The selection hypothesis suggests that those with a lower BMI are more likely to be selected into marriage. The protection hypothesis states that married adults will have better physical health as a result of the increased social support and reduced incidence of risky behavior among married individuals. The social obligation hypothesis states that those in relationships may eat more regular meals and/or richer and denser foods due to social obligations which may arise because of marriage. Finally, the marriage market hypothesis indicates that when adults are no longer in the marriage market they may not maintain a healthy BMI because doing so is costly and they are in a stable union—or on the other hand, adults may enhance their prospects in the marriage market by losing weight. Taking advantage of longitudinal data and complete marriage histories in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we estimate individual fixed effects models to examine associations between the change in log BMI and the incidence of overweight and obesity, and changes in relationship status controlling for the effects of aging and other respondent characteristics. We find no support for the marriage protection hypothesis. Rather we find evidence supporting the social obligation and marriage market hypotheses—BMI increases for both men and women during marriage and in the course of a cohabiting relationship. Separate analyses by race and ethnicity reveal substantial differences in the response of BMI to relationship status across these groups.     

Loneliness,Social Integration and Consumption of Sugar-Containing Beverages: Testing the Social Baseline Theory

Objective

Social Baseline Theory (SBT) proposes that close relationships aid in metabolic resource management and that individuals without significant relationships may experience more demands on their own neural metabolic resources on a daily basis when solving problems, remaining vigilant against potential threats and regulating emotional responses. This study tests a hypothesised consequence derived from SBT: relative social isolation leads to increased levels of sugar intake.

Methods

Based on cross-sectional, self-reported data from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (N = 90 084), information on social integration and the consumption of both sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened sodas and juices was obtained from a large number of women in early pregnancy. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess whether loneliness, marital status, relationship satisfaction, advice from others than partner, and cohesion at work is associated with consumption of sodas and juices.

Results

Perceived loneliness was associated with elevated intake of all sugary beverages, while relationship satisfaction was negatively associated with all sugary beverages. Being married or cohabitating, having supportive friends, and having a sense of togetherness at work were associated with lower intake of two out of three sugar-containing beverages. These associations were significant, even after controlling for factors such as body mass index, weight related self-image, depression, physical activity, educational level, age and income. In comparison, a statistically significant relationship emerged between relationship satisfaction and artificially sweetened cola. No other predictor variables were significantly associated with any type of artificially sweetened beverage.

Conclusions

This study indicates that loneliness and social integration influence the level of consumption of sugary beverages. The results support the hypothesis derived from the Social Baseline Theory that relative social isolation leads to increased levels of sugar intake.     

Survey of 3,000 Unwanted Pregnancies

A survey of 3,000 unwanted pregnancies disclosed two main populations differing in age, marital status, and contraceptive practice. Failure to use contraception accounted for two-thirds of the pregnancies. More than half of the patients were married women or single women in stable relationships, but many single women faced their predicament alone, without help from partner or parent.Some evidence is given of valid needs which could not be met by existing N.H.S. facilities.     

Introduction to Special Issue on "Familial and Peer Influences on Adolescent Substance Use"

This study examined associations between well-being and positive and negative aspects of social relationships among 128 married older adults with a best friend. Women were more depressed than men if they did not have a friend in whom to confide, but women who did have a friend in whom to confide reported lower levels of depressive symptomatology, closer to levels reported by men. Men's depressive symptomatology was not related to having a friend confidant. Similarly, women who did not have a same-sex best friend in whom to confide were less satisfied with life than women who did have a friend confidant and men in general. Having a best friend who gets on their nerves was negatively related to men's life satisfaction and positively related to women's. Thus, positive and negative aspects of friendships were related to women's and men's well-being in different ways and were more important for women. Positive and negative aspects of marital relationships, on the other hand, related to depressive symptomatology and life satisfaction of women in comparable ways as for men. Results are considered in terms of the practical implications for supportive relationships to help older people meet the challenges of aging.     

Demographic and contraceptive patterns among women in northern Mindanao,the Philippines

Abstract

Desired family size and contraceptive behavior of 986 ever‐married women aged 15–54 from Northern Mindanao, the Philippines, are described. Using the Dow and Werner typology of demographic and contraceptive patterns, it was found that a majority of the women were traditional in their demographic attitude and contraceptive behavior. A substantial proportion of the women desired medium to large families. Inconsistency in attitude and behavior was also manifested by women who desired small families but have never used efficient family planning methods. Sociodemographic characteristics of these women are described. A majority of the women who have never used efficient contraception also never practiced family planning. Rhythm was the primary method of birth control among demographic innovators and traditionals who have ever used inefficient methods; the pill was popular among contraceptive innovators and the moderns. A considerable proportion of the demographic innovators and the traditionals were not currently using any family planning method; a lesser proportion of contraceptive innovators and moderns were also not using birth control methods. Relevance of the findings to family planning programs is pointed out. Recommendations are given.     

Unequal chances for reaching 'a good old age'. Socio-economic health differences among older adults from a life course perspective

This article provides an overview of the socioeconomic inequality in physical and psychological health of older adults between 55 and 85 years of age, with a focus on the older adults whose socioeconomic status (SES) remains at a low level all their life. Data are derived from 1471 men and 1568 women, participating in the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA) in 1992/1993. Based on the parental and own level of education, respondents are divided in four categories: those with a life time low level of SES, those with downward or upward mobility in SES, and those with a life time high level of SES. Logistic regression analyses showed that older adults with upward SES mobility and life time high SES, had a lower risk for functional limitations, chronic diseases (men only), 6-year mortality, depression and loneliness, compared with the older adults with life time low SES. The disadvantaged position of the low SES persons with regard to age, health and psychosocial conditions explained the SES differences in depression, but SES differences in mortality (for men) and in functional disability (for men and women) are not explained by the risk factors under study. SES differences in loneliness were attributed to differences in psychosocial conditions. Lifestyle did not add to the explanation of any of the SES differences. There were only small differences between those with a life time low SES and those with downward mobility in SES. It is concluded that a low level of education (regardless of the parental level) contributes to restricted psychosocial conditions, health problems and low well-being in old age, thereby decreasing the chances for a 'good old age' considerably.     

A Behavioral Taxonomy of Loneliness in Humans and Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

Social relationships endow health and fitness benefits, but considerable variation exists in the extent to which individuals form and maintain salutary social relationships. The mental and physical health effects of social bonds are more strongly related to perceived isolation (loneliness) than to objective social network characteristics. We sought to develop an animal model to facilitate the experimental analysis of the development of, and the behavioral and biological consequences of, loneliness. In Study 1, using a population-based sample of older adults, we examined how loneliness was influenced both by social network size and by the extent to which individuals believed that their daily social interactions reflected their own choice. Results revealed three distinct clusters of individuals: (i) individuals with large networks who believed they had high choice were lowest in loneliness, (ii) individuals with small social networks who believed they had low choice were highest in loneliness, and (iii) the remaining two groups were intermediate and equivalent in loneliness. In Study 2, a similar three-group structure was identified in two separate samples of adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) living in large social groups: (i) those high in sociability who had complex social interaction with a broad range of social partners (putatively low in loneliness), (ii) those low in sociability who showed tentative interactions with certain classes of social partners (putatively high in loneliness), and (iii) those low in sociability who interacted overall at low levels with a broad range of social partners (putatively low or intermediate in loneliness). This taxonomy in monkeys was validated in subsequent experimental social probe studies. These results suggest that, in highly social nonhuman primate species, some animals may show a mismatch between social interest and social attainment that could serve as a useful animal model for experimental and mechanistic studies of loneliness.     

Epidemiological features of HIV infection among pregnant women in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

Women in Benue State have for years had the highest HIV rate in the country, but because the sentinel surveys are anonymized and unlinked, not much is known about the socio-demographic, behavioural and other risk factors that predispose these women to the disease. The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria does not appear to be a single epidemic but rather multiple epidemics of varying magnitude and trends. This cross-sectional study was therefore carried out to identify the risk factors for HIV/AIDS among these women. A total of 404 consecutive consenting mothers enrolled at the booking clinic were followed up until delivery of their babies. They were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire and tested for HIV infection using an ELISA-based kit after obtaining informed consent. Mean age of the mothers was 26+/-6.1 years, 94.8% were married while 50.5% had at least secondary level education. Sixty-one (15.1%) mothers were HIV positive with mothers aged 15-24 years being responsible for 50.8% of all infection. Following bivariate analysis, being single, having a partner with low level of formal education, living in a rural location, being in a polygamous/multiple partner union, being a higher order polygamous wife, being married more than once and reporting a history of a sexually transmitted infection were significantly associated with HIV infection. Monogamous women who lived apart from their partners and women who had ever had blood transfusion were also more likely to be HIV positive. Following multivariate logistic regression, a young age of 15-24 years (multivariate OR=3.3, 95 % CI=1.2-8.4, p=0.02); ever had other STIs (OR=1.6, 95% CI 1.1-2.3, p=0.009); no formal maternal education (OR=0.6, 95% CI 0.4-0.9, p=0.021) and having one lifetime sexual partner (OR=0.4, 95% CI 0.3-0.5, p<0.00001) were significantly associated with HIV infection in the study population. Appropriate interventions must be directed at young people and should include STI control and abstinence education. Blood safety must be ensured as well as a general improvement in the level of formal and health education in this community.     

Status,reproductive success,and marrying polygynously

A study of female reproductive histories from nineteenth-century Utah shows that although women who married polygynously had fewer children, their number of grandchildren was equal to that of women who married monogamously. Women who chose to marry high-status men polygynously traded decreased fertility for enhanced reproductive performance of offspring. High status can be associated with low fertility and yet still be consistent with fitness optimization. These results suggest how female reproductive decisions influence social structure and challenge previous assumptions concerning proximate measures of fitness.     

Diferencias en función de la edad y la autopercepción del envejecimiento en ansiedad,tristeza, soledad y sintomatología comórbida ansioso-depresiva durante el confinamiento por la COVID-19

ObjectivesTo analyze differences by age group in anxiety, depression, loneliness and comorbid anxiety and depression in young people, middle aged adults and older adults during the lock-down period at home due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and to explore the association between negative self-perceptions of aging and psychological symptoms controlling by age group.MethodParticipants are 1501 people (age range 18 to 88 years). Anxiety, sadness, loneliness and self-perceptions of aging were assessed. The sample was divided according to the age group and quartiles (lower, intermediate levels, and higher) of anxiety, sadness, loneliness and self-perceptions of aging.ResultsOlder adults reported lower levels of anxiety and sadness than middle aged adults, and middle aged adults reported lower levels than younger participants. Middle aged adults reported the lowest loneliness, followed by older adults and younger participants. For each age group, those with more negative self-perceptions of aging reported higher anxiety, sadness and loneliness. More comorbid anxiety and sadness was found in younger adults and less in older adults; more depressed participants in the middle aged group, and more older adults and less younger participants were found in the group with the lowest levels of anxiety and sadness. For all the age groups, participants with high levels of comorbid anxiety and sadness are those who report the highest scores in negative self-perceptions of aging.ConclusionsOlder adults reported lower psychological anxiety, sadness and loneliness than the other age groups. Having negative self-perceptions of aging damage psychological health irrespective of the chronological age.