Crossroads, milestones and landmarks in insect development and evolution: implications for systematics

Our understanding of insect development and evolution has increased greatly due to recent advances in the comparative developmental approach. Modern developmental biology techniques such as in situ hybridization and molecular analysis of developmentally important genes and gene families have greatly facilitated these advances. The role of the comparative developmental approach in insect systematics is explored in this paper and we suggest two important applications of the approach to insect systematics--character dissection and morphological landmarking. Existing morphological characters can be dissected into their genetic and molecular components in some cases and this will lead to more and richer character information in systematic studies. Character landmarking will he essential to systematic studies for clarifying structures such as shapes or convergences, which are previously hard to analyze anatomical regions. Both approaches will aid greatly in expanding our understanding of homology in particular, and insect development in general.     

国家自然科学基金动物学科资助昆虫生理学项目综述

昆虫生理学是昆虫学分支学科中发展最快的学科之一。本文对国家自然科学基金委员会生命科学部动物学科成立20多年以来昆虫生理学项目的资助情况进行了分析, 截止2009年, 昆虫生理学面上项目共资助92项, 占总资助项目1 208项的7.62%; 青年基金共资助16项, 占总资助项目132项的12.12%; 资助重点项目10项。目前, 我国昆虫生理学基础研究的发展已经从组织、 细胞水平深入到分子和基因水平。昆虫的基因组学, 昆虫发育的功能基因及激素调控, 寄主植物、 昆虫、 天敌三者之间的协同进化, 昆虫免疫及其机制等将是昆虫生理学的发展趋势。未来我国昆虫生理学研究应在研究方向、 人才队伍建设、 国际合作以及发挥基金的引领作用等几个方面有所加强。     

Sperm chromatin remodelling and Wolbachia-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility in Drosophila.

Wolbachia pipientis is an obligate bacterial endosymbiont, which has successfully invaded approximately 20% of all insect species by manipulating their normal developmental patterns. Wolbachia-induced phenotypes include parthenogenesis, male killing, and, most notably, cytoplasmic incompatibility. In the future these phenotypes might be useful in controlling or modifying insect populations but this will depend on our understanding of the basic molecular processes underlying insect fertilization and development. Wolbachia-infected Drosophila simulans express high levels of cytoplasmic incompatibility in which the sperm nucleus is modified and does not form a normal male pronucleus when fertilizing eggs from uninfected females. The sperm modification is somehow rescued in eggs infected with the same strain of Wolbachia. Thus, D. simulans has become an excellent model organism for investigating the manner in which endosymbionts can alter reproductive programs in insect hosts. This paper reviews the current knowledge of Drosophila early development and particularly sperm function. Developmental mutations in Drosophila that are known to affect sperm function will also be discussed.incompatibility.     

Recent trends in stream macroinvertebrates: warm-adapted and pesticide-tolerant taxa increase in richness

Recently, a plethora of studies reporting insect declines has been published. Even though the common theme is decreasing insect richness, positive trends have also been documented. Here, we analysed nationwide, systematic monitoring data on aquatic insect richness collected at 438 sites in Switzerland from 2010 to 2019. In addition to taxonomic richness, we grouped taxa in accordance with their ecological preferences and functional traits to gain a better understanding of trends and possible underlying mechanisms. We found that in general, richness of aquatic insects remained stable or increased with time. Warm-adapted taxa, common feeding guilds and pesticide-tolerant taxa showed increasing patterns while cold-adapted, rarer feeding guilds and pesticide-sensitive taxa displayed stable trends. Both climate and land-use-related factors were the most important explanatory variables for the patterns of aquatic insect richness. Although our data cover the last decade only, our results suggest that recent developments in insect richness are context-dependent and affect functional groups differently. However, longer investigations and a good understanding of the baseline are important to reveal if the increase in temperature- and pesticide-tolerant species will lead to a decrease in specialized species and a homogenization of biotic communities in the long term.     

Long‐range seasonal migration in insects: mechanisms,evolutionary drivers and ecological consequences

Myriad tiny insect species take to the air to engage in windborne migration, but entomology also has its ‘charismatic megafauna’ of butterflies, large moths, dragonflies and locusts. The spectacular migrations of large day‐flying insects have long fascinated humankind, and since the advent of radar entomology much has been revealed about high‐altitude night‐time insect migrations. Over the last decade, there have been significant advances in insect migration research, which we review here. In particular, we highlight: (1) notable improvements in our understanding of lepidopteran navigation strategies, including the hitherto unsuspected capabilities of high‐altitude migrants to select favourable winds and orientate adaptively, (2) progress in unravelling the neuronal mechanisms underlying sun compass orientation and in identifying the genetic complex underpinning key traits associated with migration behaviour and performance in the monarch butterfly, and (3) improvements in our knowledge of the multifaceted interactions between disease agents and insect migrants, in terms of direct effects on migration success and pathogen spread, and indirect effects on the evolution of migratory systems. We conclude by highlighting the progress that can be made through inter‐phyla comparisons, and identify future research areas that will enhance our understanding of insect migration strategies within an eco‐evolutionary perspective.     

Newly discovered insect RNA viruses in China

Insects are a group of arthropods and the largest group of animals on Earth,with over one million species described to date.Like other life forms,insects suffer from viruses that cause disease and death.Viruses that are pathogenic to beneficial insects cause dramatic economic losses on agriculture.In contrast,viruses that are pathogenic to insect pests can be exploited as attractive biological control agents.All of these factors have led to an explosion in the amount of research into insect viruses in recent years,generating impressive quantities of information on the molecular and cellular biology of these viruses.Due to the wide variety of insect viruses,a better understanding of these viruses will expand our overall knowledge of their virology.Here,we review studies of several newly discovered RNA insect viruses in China.     

Molecular cloning and functional expression of a Drosophila receptor for the neuropeptides capa-1 and -2

The Drosophila Genome Project website contains an annotated gene (CG14575) for a G protein-coupled receptor. We cloned this receptor and found that the cloned cDNA did not correspond to the annotated gene; it partly contained different exons and additional exons located at the 5(')-end of the annotated gene. We expressed the coding part of the cloned cDNA in Chinese hamster ovary cells and found that the receptor was activated by two neuropeptides, capa-1 and -2, encoded by the Drosophila capability gene. Database searches led to the identification of a similar receptor in the genome from the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae (58% amino acid residue identities; 76% conserved residues; and 5 introns at identical positions within the two insect genes). Because capa-1 and -2 and related insect neuropeptides stimulate fluid secretion in insect Malpighian (renal) tubules, the identification of this first insect capa receptor will advance our knowledge on insect renal function.     

昆虫发育与免疫：现代昆虫学一个重要方向

昆虫发育与免疫作为昆虫学的重要方向,面向国家需求和科学前沿,经过多维度的研究,在解决重大害虫成灾和人类健康等方面取得了重要成就。同时,生物技术的进步极大地推进了昆虫发育与免疫的学科发展,使得我们对昆虫生长发育和免疫防御的认识更加深入和全面。本“昆虫生长发育与免疫”专辑论文较好地反映了我国昆虫发育与免疫的研究现状与研究特色。生长发育方面涵盖了从卵到成虫的所有发育阶段,主要研究信号转导机制;免疫方面则聚焦于生物互作。在大数据背景下,将传统和现代技术并用,加强合作,使本研究方向在害虫防治、昆虫资源利用和粮食安全等方面将发挥更大的作用。     

Angiotensin-converting enzyme as a target for the development of novel insect growth regulators

Insect angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) is a zinc metallopeptidase capable of inactivating a variety of small to medium size peptide hormones by cleavage of C-terminal dipeptides and dipeptideamides. High levels of ACE activity are found in the hemolymph and in reproductive tissues of insects, where the enzyme is considered to have an important role in the metabolism of bioactive peptides. Therefore, inhibiting ACE activity is expected to interfere with the peptidergic endocrine system and to have detrimental effects on growth, development and reproduction. We will review the studies showing that ACE inhibitors do indeed disrupt growth and reproduction in various insect species. We will also present some new genetic and pharmacological data that strengthens our conclusion that ACE should be considered as a potential target for the development of new insect growth regulators.     

Molecular mechanisms of insect adaptation to plant defense: Lessons learned from a Bruchid beetle

Plants can accumulate, constitutively and/or after induction, a wide variety of defense compounds in their tissues that confer resistance to herbivorous insects. The naturally occurring plant resistance gene pool can serve as an arsenal in pest management via transgenic approaches. As insect‐plant interaction research rapidly advances, it has gradually become clear that the effects of plant defense compounds are determined not only by their toxicity toward target sites, but also by how insects respond to the challenge. Insect digestive tracts are not passive targets of plant defense, but often can adapt to dietary challenge and successfully deal with various plant toxins and anti‐metabolites. This adaptive response has posed an obstacle to biotechnology‐based pest control approaches, which underscores the importance of understanding insect adaptive mechanisms. Molecular studies on the impact of protease inhibitors on insect digestion have contributed significantly to our understanding of insect adaptation to plant defense. This review will focus on exposing how the insect responds to protease inhibitors by both qualitative and quantitative remodeling of their digestive proteases using the cowpea bruchid–soybean cysteine protease inhibitor N system.     

重组DNA技术在昆虫学中的应用

重组DNA技术即基因工程,亦为人们称做基因克隆或基因操作。重组DNA技术已被应用于昆虫学的基础研究和应用研究中。本文首先对重组DNA技术及基因转移技术(在昆虫学研究中与重组DNA技术配合应用的重要手段)作一简述,然后着重介绍这些技术在昆虫学研究中的应用概况。 重组DNA技术 重组DNA技术就是将DNA从细胞中分离出来,切割成片段,与载体DNA连接,形成重组DNA分子,然后导入宿主细胞,进行复制。     

The Erwin equation of biodiversity: From little steps to quantum leaps in the discovery of tropical insect diversity

Almost 40 years ago, Terry L. Erwin published a seemingly audacious proposition: There may be as many as 30 million species of insects in the world. Here, we translate Erwin's verbal argument into a diversity-ratio model—the Erwin Equation of Biodiversity—and discuss how it has inspired other biodiversity estimates. We categorize, describe the assumptions for, and summarize the most commonly used methods for calculating estimates of global biodiversity. Subsequent diversity-ratio extrapolations have incorporated parameters representing empirical insect specialization ratios, and how insect specialization changes at different spatial scales. Other approaches include macroecological diversity models and diversity curves. For many insect groups with poorly known taxonomies, diversity estimates are based on the opinions of taxonomic experts. We illustrate our current understanding of insect diversity by focusing on the six most speciose insect orders worldwide. For each order, we compiled estimates of the (a) maximum estimated number of species, (b) minimum estimated number of species, and (c) number of currently described species. By integrating these approaches and considering new information, we believe an estimate of 5.5 million species of insects in the world is much too low. New molecular methodologies (e.g., metabarcoding and NGS studies) are revealing daunting numbers of cryptic and previously undescribed species, at the same time increasing our precision but also uncertainty about present estimates. Not until technologies advance and sampling become more comprehensive, especially of tropical biotas, will we be able to make robust estimates of the total number of insect species on Earth.     

Response of insect parasitism to elevation depends on host and parasitoid life-history strategies

How global warming will affect insect parasitoids and their role as natural enemies of insect pests is difficult to assess within a short period of time. Considering that elevation gradients can be used as analogues for global warming, we carried out meta-analyses of 27 correlations between parasitoid richness and elevation and 140 correlations between parasitism rate and elevation in natural and semi-natural environments. We also explored various covariates that may explain the observed responses. Both parasitism rates and parasitoid species richness significantly decreased with increasing elevation. The decrease was greater for ectoparasitoids and parasitoids of ectophagous insects than for endoparasitoids and parasitoids of endophagous hosts, possibly because these latter are better protected from adverse and extreme climatic conditions occurring at higher elevations. Although our results suggest an increase of parasitism with increasing temperature, other factors regulating herbivorous insects have to be considered before concluding that climate warming will lead to a decrease in pest density.     

Field tests on managing resistance to Bt-engineered plants

Several important crops have been engineered to express toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for insect control. In 1999, US farmers planted nearly 8 million hectares (nearly 20 million acres) of transgenic Bt crops approved by the EPA. Bt-transgenic plants can greatly reduce the use of broader spectrum insecticides, but insect resistance may hinder this technology. Present resistance management strategies rely on a "refuge" composed of non-Bt plants to conserve susceptible alleles. We have used Bt-transgenic broccoli plants and the diamondback moth as a model system to examine resistance management strategies. The higher number of larvae on refuge plants in our field tests indicate that a "separate refuge" will be more effective at conserving susceptible larvae than a "mixed refuge" and would thereby reduce the number of homozygous resistant (RR) offspring. Our field tests also examined the strategy of spraying the refuge to prevent economic loss to the crop while maintaining susceptible alleles in the population. Results indicate that great care must be taken to ensure that refuges, particularly those sprayed with efficacious insecticides, produce adequate numbers of susceptible alleles. Each insect/Bt crop system may have unique management requirements because of the biology of the insect, but our studies validate the need for a refuge. As we learn more about how to refine our present resistance management strategies, it is important to also develop the next generation of technology and implementation strategies.     

追踪天使——雷达昆虫学30年

雷达昆虫学是一门新的学科分支。从它诞生起的30年来,英、美、澳、中四国的观测研究已初步阐明了昆虫在迁飞过程中的成层、定向、集聚等行为现象及其时空分布,揭示了大气结构和运动对昆虫迁飞的影响,为深化人们对昆虫迁飞行为机制的认识提供了许多令人耳目一新的画面;昆虫雷达技术也逐渐从研究走向实用,已经实现了对迁飞性害虫的长期、自动和实时监测。在全国建立VLR网并与GIS相结合,可望实现对我国重大虫灾的及时预警。     

International Symposium on Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology：Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China, September 19-22, 2007

We are building on the success of the Sixth Chinese Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Symposium, Beijing, held in 2005. The 2005 symposium saw many Chinese and international authorities share their expertise in a broad range of insect science, including analyses of insect genomes and proteomes, functional gene expression and regulation during development, insect immunity, insect neurobiology, insect-host interactions and insect chemical communication. The coming symposium, which will be held in Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong province, September 19-22, 2007, will offer material along similar lines.[第一段]     

Incorporating variability in simulations of seasonally forced phenology using integral projection models

Phenology models are becoming increasingly important tools to accurately predict how climate change will impact the life histories of organisms. We propose a class of integral projection phenology models derived from stochastic individual‐based models of insect development and demography. Our derivation, which is based on the rate summation concept, produces integral projection models that capture the effect of phenotypic rate variability on insect phenology, but which are typically more computationally frugal than equivalent individual‐based phenology models. We demonstrate our approach using a temperature‐dependent model of the demography of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins), an insect that kills mature pine trees. This work illustrates how a wide range of stochastic phenology models can be reformulated as integral projection models. Due to their computational efficiency, these integral projection models are suitable for deployment in large‐scale simulations, such as studies of altered pest distributions under climate change.     

昆虫肠道的宏基因组学:微生物大数据的新疆界

微生物作为自然界中普遍存在的生命体,通常以"微生物群落"的形式共存。这些物种相互协作适应环境变化的同时,也对环境产生了长期而深刻的影响。随着人类对于微生物了解的深入,微生物群落基础研究及其在健康和环境等领域的应用研究日益重要。昆虫肠道内存在种类繁多、数量庞大的微生物,一方面,这些肠道微生物种群结构的多样性与昆虫种类、龄期、消化道形式、食物的来源、环境等都息息相关。另一方面,这些菌群也对宿主的一些生理活动有着一定的影响。随着高通量测序技术、组学技术的发展,昆虫肠道宏基因组大数据挖掘和应用已经成为研究热点,极大地推动人类微生物资源利用的能力。本文概述了昆虫肠道微生物宏基因组学的发展现状和发展趋势,特别是肠道宏基因组学大数据的挖掘工具和应用,以及现阶段昆虫肠道宏基因组学的研究进展、应用、优势和瓶颈,并对今后昆虫肠道微生物组大数据研究方向进行展望。