The Occurrence of Translocated Antibiotics in Expressed, Plant Sap

The details of a convenient laboratory press are presented anda procedure by which plant sap is readily obtained is described.The pressing procedure has been shown to release 53–74per cent. of the total plant water as expressed sap. Preliminary observations on the uptake and translocation ofantibiotics by higher plants obtained by examining expressedsap are described. It is shown that the assay of expressed sapprovides a measure of the griseofulvin and chloramphenicol concentrationin leaves of plants grown in solutions of these antibioticsthat does not differ significantly from the value obtained bythe assay of water extracts. Extraction of leaves from plants grown in griseofulvin solutionswith organic solvents demonstrates a much greater antibioticcontent than is indicated by the assay of expressed sap. Toexplain this difference a ‘free’ antibiotic fraction,obtainable in expressed sap or water extracts, and a ‘bound’fraction recovered from the leaf only by organic solvent extractionare postulated.     

Differential peroxidase activities in three different crops upon insect feeding

Peroxidases are the ubiquitous enzyme and reported to be present in all living genera. They catalyses reduction of peroxide and generate reactive oxygen species. In the present study we demonstrated that insect infestation induces peroxidase activity in sap and total soluble protein (TSP) of plant leaves. Three important crop plants viz. tomato, cowpea and cotton were used for this study. After infestation of chewing insect, Peroxidase activity in the sap and TSP of all the studied plants were enhanced in the range of 1.6 to 3.14 fold. Similar observations were also obtained with feeding of sap sucking insects, in which increment in peroxidase activity of sap and TSP was in the range of 1.8 to 2.53 fold. Enhanced peroxidase activity was reconfirmed by in-gel peroxidase assay. Enzyme kinetic study showed turn over efficiency of peroxidase from cotton (~101.3 min^-1) was almost similar to tomato (~100.8 min^-1) but higher than cowpea (~98.21min^-1). MS/MS analysis of observed band showed significant similarity with the reported peroxidases in database.     

An Apparatus for the Measurement of Sap Flow in Unexcised Leafy Shoots

An apparatus is described for the measurement of water flowin shoots of woody plants by a steady-state heat-flow method.Two thermocouples are set up on either side of a heating elementinserted into the stem. The temperature difference between eachof these thermocouples and the surrounding air is measured.Theoretical considerations show that the logarithm of the ratioof this difference in the ‘downstream’ to that inthe ‘upstream’ position gives a measure of sap flow-rate.The apparatus provides a system that can be used in field orlaboratory conditions to follow water transport in the leafyshoot over periods of at least 24 h.     

Composition of the Xylem Sap of Tea Plants (Camellia sinensis L.)

A modified method for the collection of xylem sap from tea plantsis described. In multistemmed tea plants a marked differencein the composition of the sap collected from different branchesof comparable diameter on the same plant was found. The possibilitythat the variation could be due to root disease or mechanicaldamage on one side of the tree was eliminated byusing V-stemsfrom a main branch. The sap contained a small quantity of asubstance which showed gibberellin-like activity.     

Characterization of the maize xylem sap proteome

The xylem in plants has mainly been described as a conduit for water and minerals, but emerging evidence also indicates that the xylem contains protein. To study the proteins in xylem sap, we characterized the identity and composition of the maize xylem sap proteome. The composition of the xylem sap proteome in maize revealed proteins related to different phases of xylem differentiation including cell wall metabolism, secondary cell wall synthesis, and programmed cell death. Many proteins were found to be present as multiple isoforms and some of these isoforms are glycosylated. Proteins involved in defense mechanisms were also present in xylem sap and the sap proteins were shown to have antifungal activity in bioassays.     

花棒茎流对降雨的响应

干旱半干旱区植物生理过程的水分响应依赖于降雨强度和频率,研究典型沙生植物对降雨的响应有助于预测未来气候条件下荒漠生态系统的结构和功能变化.2012和2013年花棒生长季,在宁夏盐池采用包裹式茎流仪对花棒茎流进行连续观测,分析茎流在晴天和雨天的变化特征及其对不同降雨事件的响应.结果表明: 雨天的花棒日茎流量低于晴天.晴天,茎流日变化呈“几”字型宽峰曲线,与太阳辐射和相对湿度呈正相关;雨天,茎流日变化呈多峰曲线或者一直处于极低状态,与太阳辐射和空气温度呈正相关.降雨不仅可以通过影响当天太阳辐射、空气温度、饱和蒸汽压差和相对湿度影响花棒茎流通量,还通过调控土壤含水量影响降雨后的茎流通量.降雨量<20 mm时,降雨前后茎流通量差异不显著;降雨量>20 mm时,降雨后的茎流通量比降雨前有显著提高.高土壤含水量不仅能够提高茎流通量,并且能够提高茎流通量对太阳辐射、饱和水汽压差和空气温度的响应敏感性.     

Redistribution of Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Manganese in the Plant

The extent of redistribution in apple was described by calculating the fruit/leaf ratio of the cation content. It was found that the redistribution diminishes in the sequence K > Mg > Ca ～ Mn. These results are more or less in agreement with those found elsewhere. Investigations were made to see whether it was possible to account for the differences in redistribution by the phloem by means of the solubility of these cations in the sieve tube sap. As model plants Yucca flaccida and Ricinus communis were used, plants from which it was possible to obtain phloem sap in a rather pure state. It was found that the addition of potassium and magnesium as a chloride in the usual investigated range of concentrations did not give precipitation. With calcium and manganese, however, a precipitate soon occurred. Manganese was demonstrated to be less soluble than calcium. For Ricinus the maximum amount of calcium and manganese the sieve tube sap could contain before precipitation set in was higher than for Yucca sap. The results confirm the possibility that the redistribution of the different cations in the plant can be related inter alia to their solubility in the sieve tube sap. It was also found that the calcium in the phloem sap is present in ionic condition. Thus the normal laws of solubility should be applicable.     

Rhythmic fluctuations in the synthetic activities of the nodulated root of the legume

Summary If a nodulated legume is decapitated immediately after a brief period of photosynthesis in C¹⁴O₂ a highly reproducible pattern of labelling is detected among the amino compounds of the root bleeding sap. The sequences of this pattern apparently reflect the consequences of the exchange of labelled carbohydrate with various morphological and metabolic compartments of the root. The progress of the exchange is greatly influenced by diurnal variations in root metabolism.An endogenous component is described for the rhythmic discharge of amino compounds into the bleeding sap. At 24°C the period of the rhythm is slightly greater than 24 hours.Plants with branched shoots are used to study environmental influences on the translocation of labelled assimilates from a shoot, and the utilisation of these materials in synthesis of organic compounds of nitrogen in the nodulated root. One half of the branched shoot is fed with C¹⁴O₂ and its unlabelled partner removed for collection of bleeding sap. A progressive enrichment of bleeding sap with radiocarbon occurs only if the plants are exposed to normal photoperiods and ambient temperatures. Similar plants retained in darkness in constant temperature exhibit a rapid decline in the specific activity of the amino fraction of the bleeding sap, suggesting that translocation from the pool of labelled carbohydrate in the shoot has failed to keep pace with root synthesis.     

花棒茎流对降雨的响应

干旱半干旱区植物生理过程的水分响应依赖于降雨强度和频率,研究典型沙生植物对降雨的响应有助于预测未来气候条件下荒漠生态系统的结构和功能变化.2012和2013年花棒生长季,在宁夏盐池采用包裹式茎流仪对花棒茎流进行连续观测,分析茎流在晴天和雨天的变化特征及其对不同降雨事件的响应.结果表明: 雨天的花棒日茎流量低于晴天.晴天,茎流日变化呈“几”字型宽峰曲线,与太阳辐射和相对湿度呈正相关;雨天,茎流日变化呈多峰曲线或者一直处于极低状态,与太阳辐射和空气温度呈正相关.降雨不仅可以通过影响当天太阳辐射、空气温度、饱和蒸汽压差和相对湿度影响花棒茎流通量,还通过调控土壤含水量影响降雨后的茎流通量.降雨量<20 mm时,降雨前后茎流通量差异不显著;降雨量>20 mm时,降雨后的茎流通量比降雨前有显著提高.高土壤含水量不仅能够提高茎流通量,并且能够提高茎流通量对太阳辐射、饱和水汽压差和空气温度的响应敏感性.     

科尔沁沙地黄柳和小叶锦鸡儿茎流及蒸腾特征

利用Dynamax茎流测量系统、Li-6400光合作用仪和自动气象站分别对科尔沁沙地两种灌木树种黄柳和小叶锦鸡儿的液流变化、蒸腾速率及其周围的环境因子进行检测.研究结果表明：（1）黄柳、小叶锦鸡儿茎干液流通量密度日变化趋势基本相同,呈多峰曲线;液流启动时间分别为4：30、5：30,在13：00左右到达各自液流峰值,峰值大小为81.2～91.7mg/h、17.3～27.1mg/h,20：30降为最低,晚间均具有明显的液流活动现象.（2）灌木的茎流日变化曲线与蒸腾速率日变化曲线并不吻合,实验测得的叶片蒸腾速率不能同步反映茎干液流的动态变化特征;黄柳的叶片蒸腾速率和单枝蒸腾耗水量均大于小叶锦鸡儿,耐旱性相对较低.（3）黄柳、小叶锦鸡儿白天液流通量密度变化趋势与环境因子变化趋势相吻合.相关性分析表明,影响灌木液流变化的主要因子依次是太阳有效辐射、相对湿度、大气温度、风速、10cm和20cm土壤温度.     

Hormones and root-shoot relationships in flooded plants — an analysis of methods and results

Two aspects of root to shoot communication in flooded plants are discussed (i) the formation of porous aerenchyma that enhances the passage of oxygen, and other gases, from shoots to roots and (ii) the movement of the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) from roots to shoots in the transpiration stream, and the effect of this on ethylene production and epinastic curvature in the shoots. For aerenchyma studies a highly sensitive photoacoustic laser detector for ethylene was used to avoid interference associated with other methods of ethylene measurement that require tissue excision. ACC concentrations in xylem sap were measured by physico-chemical means to ensure correct identification and account for processing losses. Solute concentrations, e.g., abscisic acid (ABA), in xylem sap are shown to be distorted by temporary contamination caused by the method used to collect sap. Concentrations of solutes in xylem sap (e.g., ACC) are also altered by changes in sap flow brought about by conventional methods of sap collection or by experimental treatments such as flooding the soil. Ways of for overcoming these problems are described together with a summary of preliminary results.     

Selection of perennial and Italian ryegrass plants resistant to ryegrass mosaic virus

Perennial ryegrass plants collected from fields and Italian ryegrass plants grown from seed were selected for resistance to infection by ryegrass mosaic virus (RMV) by repeated manual inoculation. Two of 108 perennial ryegrass plants and one of 150 Italian ryegrass plants were symptomless after seven and nine inoculations respectively. These three plants were propagated vegetatively. Plants of the two perennial ryegrass clones showed no symptoms after further manual inoculations with the initial isolate of RMV, or with an inoculum from infected plants collected from several fields, or after inoculation by viruliferous mites. Electron microscopy and back tests indicated that the plants were virus free. Some plants of the selected Italian ryegrass clone became infected after a further inoculation with mites or sap, but fewer than similarly inoculated unselected plants.     

不同灌溉量对塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地梭梭水分生理特性的影响

利用热平衡式茎流计和压力室,对不同灌溉量下塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地防护林植物梭梭的水分生理特性进行了测定.结果表明：梭梭茎干液流的日变化曲线随着灌溉量的不同而有所差异,灌溉量为每次每株35和24.5 kg条件下,茎干液流日变化曲线呈单峰型,且变幅较大,灌溉量为每次每株14 kg条件下,其日变化曲线为双峰型,变化较平缓;随着灌溉量的减少,梭梭日平均液流速率逐渐降低,其日单株耗水量也随之降低;随着灌溉量的减少,梭梭的清晨水势和午后水势逐渐降低, 且茎干液流速率与总辐射、空气温度、相对湿度和风速的相关性均增强,但不同灌溉量下,其与总辐射的相关性都最强.     

Extraction of apoplastic sap from plant roots by centrifugation

A centrifugal method for extracting apoplastic sap from roots of lupin ( Lupinus angustifolius ) and pea ( Pisum sativum ) plants, and a method to analyse malic dehydrogenase in the sap using capillary electrophoresis, are described. Osmolality of apoplastic sap was relatively constant at relative centrifugal forces (RCFs) between 600 and 3000 g for lupin, and between 600 and 4000 g for pea. Electropherograms of a marker enzyme (malic dehydrogenase) and other components in apoplastic and symplastic saps revealed that contamination occurred at 7000 g . It is suggested that apoplastic sap expelled from plant roots at RCF between 600 and 3000 g is free from symplastic contamination, and is regarded as being of apoplastic origin. The proposed method was used to measure apoplastic pH changes in the plant roots in response to external pH, ammonium, nitrate and vanadate.     

Differential responses of galeal gustatory sensilla of the adult Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), to leaf saps from host and non-host plants

ABSTRACT Responses of galeal sensilla of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), to leaf sap from Solanum tuberosum and a number of other solanaceous and non-solanaceous plants are described. A single cell responds vigorously to expressed sap from S.tuberosum , -and even to ten-fold dilutions of expressed sap. The response is characterized by a high spike frequency, low phasic activity and a tonic phase which can last for tens of seconds. At 8 s following stimulus application the primary response is typically 50% of its original activity, indicating slow adaptation to the sap stimulus. The primary response varies little among multiple stimulations of single sensilla and among sensilla on the same animal. There is a secondary response to potato leaf sap from one or more cells which have low spike amplitudes. This is usually of much lower frequency than the response from the primary cell, and it is highly variable.
The prominent and reproducible single cell response to potato sap may be an important component in signalling the presence of a host plant. This hypothesis is tested using saps from two other species of Solanum which are hosts, and several solanaceous and non-solanaceous non-hosts. Responses of galeal sensilla to the three host-plants tested were qualitatively similar and reproducible while responses to the non-hosts were highly variable and qualitatively different from responses to host saps. These results are interpreted and discussed in the context of a possible mechanism for chemosensory coding of complex stimuli in the insect/plant relationship.
Analysis of the raw electrophysiological data required extensive use of a microcomputer and several programs were developed during the course of this study. The computer analyses are briefly described in the paper and additional information and copies of the programs are available from the authors.     

The exclusion of ambient aerosols changes the water relations of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and bean (Vicia faba) plants

Aerosols are an ubiquitous component of the atmospheric environment of plants but their ecophysiological role is largely unknown. Here we address this role by comparing the water relations of plants grown in ventilated greenhouses with ambient air (AA), and filtered air (FA) where particle concentrations had been reduced by more than 99%. Beans and sunflowers were grown in well watered soil or hydroponics. Humidity response curves of gas exchange were recorded along with sap flow, water potentials, and osmotic potentials.Hydroponically grown FA sunflowers and FA beans showed 20–40% lower stomatal conductance and lower transpiration compared to the respective AA plants under identical conditions. In sap flow measurements, the leaf-area related transpiration of soil-grown FA sunflowers was about 20–30% lower than for AA plants, partially due to lower night time values. Midday water potentials as well as osmotic potentials of FA plants were higher compared to the respective AA plants, while pre-dawn water potentials did not differ.Reduced transpiration of FA plants with stable photosynthesis was observed for beans and can be explained by the “hydraulic activation of stomata”, where deposited hygroscopic aerosols form liquid water connections along the stomatal walls, thereby forming a second, liquid-water type of stomatal transpiration. Simultaneously decreased transpiration and photosynthesis were observed for sunflower and point to a smaller stomatal aperture of FA plants. To our knowledge, this is the first study allocating an important functional role to natural aerosol concentrations. It further supports the idea that particulate air pollution may decrease the water use efficiency and the drought tolerance of plants.     

应用热平衡法测定玉米/大豆间作群体内作物的蒸腾量

通过田间试验采用基于热平衡法的茎流计测定玉米/大豆条带间作群体内作物的蒸腾规律.结果表明：间作群体内,玉米和大豆植株的茎流速率在晴天呈单峰曲线,在阴天则呈多峰曲线.植株的茎流受多个环境因子的影响,其中太阳辐射是影响植株茎流最主要的气象因子.玉米和大豆的单株日茎流量与多个气象因子间存在较好的相关关系,达到极显著水平.茎流观测期内（2008年6月1-30日）,间作群体内玉米植株的日均蒸腾量（1.44 mm·d^-1）为大豆（0.79 mm·d^-1）的1.8倍,玉米和大豆植株的蒸腾量分别占间作群体总蒸腾量的64%和36%.考虑到作物的茎直径和叶面积的空间变异,安装一定数量的茎流探头对于准确测定植株茎流是十分必要的.     

Changes in the composition of xylem sap during development of the spadix of skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus)

The spadix of skunk cabbage, Symplocarpus foetidus, is thermogenic and maintains an internal temperature of around 20 degrees C even when the ambient air temperature drops below freezing. This homeothermic heat production is observed only during the stigma stage, and thereafter ceases at the male stage when pollen is shed. To clarify the regulatory mechanism by which the stigma stage-specific heat production occurs in the spadix, sugars, organic acids, and amino acids in xylem sap were analyzed and compared with those of post-thermogenic plants. Interestingly, no significant difference was observed in the total volume of xylem sap per fresh weight of the spadix between thermogenic (31.2+/-24.7 microl h(-1) g(-1)) and post-thermogenic (50.5+/-30.4 microl h(-1) g(-1)) plants. However, concentrations of sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose), organic acids (malate and succinate), and amino acids (Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln, Gly, and Ala) in xylem sap decreased remarkably in post-thermogenic plants. Our results indicate that the composition of the xylem sap differs during the development of the spadix of S. foetidus.     

不同天气条件下小叶锦鸡儿茎流及耗水特性

采用以热平衡为原理的Dynamax包裹式茎流测量系统,于2006年对科尔沁沙地人工小叶锦鸡儿群落的液流变化进行连续监测,利用实验区自动气象站同步检测光合有效辐射、气温、相对湿度和风速等气象因子,结合人工记录的天气状况,分别选取4种最典型的天气条件,分析了小叶锦鸡儿的茎流变化、单枝耗水量及其与气象因子的关系.结果表明:在高温、强辐射条件下,小叶锦鸡儿的液流呈"几"字型宽峰曲线,以低耗水的蒸腾特性耐受干旱缺水的环境.不同天气条件下,小叶锦鸡儿液流日变化波动曲线及其主要影响因子各异,但光合有效辐射始终是液流变化的主导因子.小叶锦鸡儿茎干液流通量密度的变化是各种气象因子综合作用的结果.单枝日耗水量的总体变化趋势是从晴天、阴天、风天到雨天依次减少,其平均值分别为459、310、281和193mg.d-1.     

Relationships between xylem sap constituents and leaf conductance of well-watered and water-stressed maize across three xylem sap sampling techniques

Many different techniques have been used for xylem sap collection, but few direct comparisons of techniques have been conducted and few comparisons have been based on comprehensive analyses of xylem sap. Moreover, the suitability of extraction techniques for use on plants grown under water-stress conditions has not been addressed. Xylem sap was extracted from both well-watered and water-stressed Zea mays plants using three different techniques. The main aim was to determine how the extraction method altered the correlations between sap constituents and stomatal conductance in order to determine which relationships change with extraction technique. A 'root pressure' technique was the simplest method of extracting large volumes of sap, but the low sap delivery rates altered the composition of sap. Two pressurization techniques that varied in the position from which sap was collected were tested. The pressurization techniques allowed for the control of delivery rates that influence sap constituent concentrations. The position from which xylem sap was collected on the plant was also found to be important. All three techniques produced consistent correlations between ABA and chloride delivery rates and changes in stomatal conductance, suggesting that each technique could be applied to identify certain putative xylem-borne signals.