Integrating a global agro-climatic classification with bioregional boundaries in Australia

Aim Stratification of major differences in the biophysical features of landscapes at the continental scale is necessary to collectively assess local observations of landscape response to management actions for consistency and difference. Such a stratification is an important step in the development of generalizations concerning how landscapes respond to different management regimes. As part of the development of a comparative framework for this purpose, we propose a climate classification adapted from an existing broad scale global agro‐climatic classification, which is closely aligned with natural vegetation formations and common land uses across Australia. Location The project considered landscapes across the continent of Australia. Methods The global agro‐climatic classification was adapted by using elevation‐dependent thin plate smoothing splines to clarify the spatial extents of the 18 global classes found in Australia. The clarified class boundaries were interpolated from known classes at 822 points across Australia. These classes were then aligned with the existing bioregional classification, Interim Biogeographic Regionalization for Australia IBRA 5.1. Results The aligned climate classes reflect major patterns in plant growth temperature and moisture indices and seasonality. These in turn reflect broad differences in cropping and other land use characteristics. Fifty‐two of the 85 bioregions were classified entirely into one of the 18 agro‐climatic classes. The remaining bioregions were classified according to sub‐bioregional boundaries. A small number of these sub‐bioregions were split to better reflect agro‐climatic boundaries. Main conclusions The agro‐climatic classification provided an explicit global context for the analysis. The topographic dependence of the revised climate class boundaries clarified the spatial extents of poorly sampled highland classes and facilitated the alignment of these classes with the bioregional classification. This also made the classification amenable to explicit application. The bioregional and subregional boundaries reflect discontinuities in biophysical features. These permit the integrated classification to reflect major potential differences in landscape function and response to management. The refined agro‐climatic classification and its integration with the IBRA bioregions are both available for general use and assessment.     

Water,land, fire,and forest: Multi‐scale determinants of rainforests in the Australian monsoon tropics

The small rainforest fragments found in savanna landscapes are powerful, yet often overlooked, model systems to understand the controls of these contrasting ecosystems. We analyzed the relative effect of climatic variables on rainforest density at a subcontinental level, and employed high‐resolution, regional‐level analyses to assess the importance of landscape settings and fire activity in determining rainforest density in a frequently burnt Australian savanna landscape. Estimates of rainforest density (ha/km²) across the Northern Territory and Western Australia, derived from preexisting maps, were used to calculate the correlations between rainforest density and climatic variables. A detailed map of the northern Kimberley (Western Australia) rainforests was generated and analyzed to determine the importance of geology and topography in controlling rainforests, and to contrast rainforest density on frequently burnt mainland and nearby islands. In the northwestern Australian, tropics rainforest density was positively correlated with rainfall and moisture index, and negatively correlated with potential evapotranspiration. At a regional scale, rainforests showed preference for complex topographic positions and more fertile geology. Compared with mainland areas, islands had significantly lower fire activity, with no differences between terrain types. They also displayed substantially higher rainforest density, even on level terrain where geomorphological processes do not concentrate nutrients or water. Our multi‐scale approach corroborates previous studies that suggest moist climate, infrequent fires, and geology are important stabilizing factors that allow rainforest fragments to persist in savanna landscapes. These factors need to be incorporated in models to predict the future extent of savannas and rainforests under climate change.     

Spatial indicators of fire risk in the arid and semi-arid zone of Australia

Fire plays a role in determining the shape of the earth's ecosystems, impacts socio-economic issues, and influences our climate. In arid and semi-arid Australia (70% of the continent), individual fires frequently exceed 1 million ha, and have collectively burnt up to 9% of the total area in a single year, associated with antecedent periods of above average rainfall which boost the fuel load. People affected by these fires – Federal and State governments, pastoralists, Aboriginal communities, larger towns, conservation park managers and tourist operators – all have different outlooks and priorities about these phenomena. Little objective information about the fire regime and its drivers has been available for this vast area with its very low population density. A predictive understanding of the spatial and temporal pattern of risk of large uncontrollable fires is needed to promote pro-active management.We present a conceptual framework which serves both to summarise existing knowledge and to reduce the complexity for a quantitative statistical analysis. This conceptual framework contains four main groups of independent variables; biomass, curing, ignition source, and fire weather. For these groups of variables we identified direct data sources or spatial surrogates. To quantify different aspects of the fire regime, interpretation of NOAA-AVHRR satellite imagery was employed, which identifies both fire hotspots (FHS) and fire affected area (FAA). For temporal variables, we present a surface displaying relationships for different combinations of lag/phase. This highlights different patterns for each region, and the most appropriate timeframes to use in modelling.Results of exploratory regression analysis in arid and semi-arid Australia show that the strongest influence is exerted by biomass or fuel load. As this is highly dependent on antecedent rainfall, we can anticipate a strong effect of climate change on the fire regime. The strongest combinations of relationships may be used as spatial indicators in the development of long-lead fire risk models for these areas. This can help improve the timing of pro-active strategies to manage fire, and in the allocation of sparse funds and resources. Our analysis has highlighted regional patterns of fire across different land tenures. Heightened awareness of these patterns may encourage a more cooperative and coordinated approach to fire management amongst stakeholders.     

Signatures of polygenic adaptation associated with climate across the range of a threatened fish species with high genetic connectivity

Adaptive differences across species’ ranges can have important implications for population persistence and conservation management decisions. Despite advances in genomic technologies, detecting adaptive variation in natural populations remains challenging. Key challenges in gene–environment association studies involve distinguishing the effects of drift from those of selection and identifying subtle signatures of polygenic adaptation. We used paired‐end restriction site‐associated DNA sequencing data (6,605 biallelic single nucleotide polymorphisms; SNPs) to examine population structure and test for signatures of adaptation across the geographic range of an iconic Australian endemic freshwater fish species, the Murray cod Maccullochella peelii. Two univariate gene–association methods identified 61 genomic regions associated with climate variation. We also tested for subtle signatures of polygenic adaptation using a multivariate method (redundancy analysis; RDA). The RDA analysis suggested that climate (temperature‐ and precipitation‐related variables) and geography had similar magnitudes of effect in shaping the distribution of SNP genotypes across the sampled range of Murray cod. Although there was poor agreement among the candidate SNPs identified by the univariate methods, the top 5% of SNPs contributing to significant RDA axes included 67% of the SNPs identified by univariate methods. We discuss the potential implications of our findings for the management of Murray cod and other species generally, particularly in relation to informing conservation actions such as translocations to improve evolutionary resilience of natural populations. Our results highlight the value of using a combination of different approaches, including polygenic methods, when testing for signatures of adaptation in landscape genomic studies.     

A survey of long‐term terrestrial ecology studies in Australia

Long‐term ecological studies (LTES) are critical for understanding and managing landscapes. To identify important research gaps, facilitate collaborations and communicate results, several countries have established long‐term ecological research networks. A few initiatives to create such a network in Australia have been undertaken, but relatively few published data exist on the current state of LTES in Australia. In this paper, we present the results of an online survey of terrestrial LTES projects sent to academic, government and non‐governmental organization‐based researchers across Australia. We asked questions pertaining to the focus, scope, support and outcomes of LTES spanning 7 years or longer. Based on the information reported from 85 Australian LTES, we: (i) identify the biomes, processes and species that are under‐represented in the current body of research; (ii) discuss important contributing factors to the successful development and survival of these projects; and (iii) make recommendations to help increase the productivity and influence of LTES across research, management and policy sectors.     

Wilderness and future conservation priorities in Australia

Aim Most approaches to conservation prioritization are focused on biodiversity features that are already threatened. While this is necessary in the face of accelerating anthropogenic threats, there have been calls to conserve large intact landscapes, often termed ‘wilderness’, to ensure the long‐term persistence of biodiversity. In this study, we examine the consequences of directing conservation expenditure using a threat‐based framework for wilderness conservation. Location The Australian continent. Methods We measured the degree of congruence between the extent of wilderness and the Australian protected area network in 2000 and 2006, which was established using a threat‐based systematic planning framework. We also assessed priority areas for future reserve acquisitions identified by the Australian government under the current framework. Results In 2000, 14% of Australia’s wilderness was under formal protection, while the protected area network covered only 8.5% of the continent, suggesting a historical bias towards wilderness protection. However, the expansion of the reserve system from 2000 to 2006 was biased towards non‐wilderness areas. Moreover, 90% of the wilderness that was protected over this period comprised areas not primarily designated for biodiversity conservation. We found a significant (P < 0.05) negative relationship between bioregions considered to be a priority for future reserve prioritization and the amount of wilderness they contain. Main conclusions While there is an urgent need to overcome past biases in reserve network design so as to better protect poorly represented species and habitats, prioritization approaches should not become so reactive as to ignore the role that large, intact landscapes play in conserving biodiversity, especially in a time of human‐induced climate change. This can be achieved by using current or future threats rather than past threats to prioritize areas, and by incorporating key ecological processes and costs of acquisition and management within the planning framework.     

Islands of water in a sea of dry land: hydrological regime predicts genetic diversity and dispersal in a widespread fish from Australia's arid zone, the golden perch (Macquaria ambigua)

Rivers provide an excellent system to study interactions between patterns of biodiversity structure and ecological processes. In these environments, gene flow is restricted by the spatial hierarchy and temporal variation of connectivity within the drainage network. In the Australian arid zone, this variability is high and rivers often exist as isolated waterholes connected during unpredictable floods. These conditions cause boom/bust cycles in the population dynamics of taxa, but their influence on spatial genetic diversity is largely unknown. We used a landscape genetics approach to assess the effect of hydrological variability on gene flow, spatial population structure and genetic diversity in an Australian freshwater fish, Macquaria ambigua. Our analysis is based on microsatellite data of 590 samples from 26 locations across the species range. Despite temporal isolation of populations, the species showed surprisingly high rates of dispersal, with population genetic structure only evident among major drainage basins. Within drainages, hydrological variability was a strong predictor of genetic diversity, being positively correlated with spring-time flow volume. We propose that increases in flow volume during spring stimulate recruitment booms and dispersal, boosting population size and genetic diversity. Although it is uncertain how the hydrological regime in arid Australia may change under future climate scenarios, management strategies for arid-zone fishes should mitigate barriers to dispersal and alterations to the natural flow regime to maintain connectivity and the species' evolutionary potential. This study contributes to our understanding of the influence of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on population and landscape processes.     

Range size-abundance relationships in Australian passerines

Aim To investigate the relationship between geographical range size and abundance (population density) in Australian passerines. Location Australia (including Tasmania). Methods We analysed the relationship between range size and local abundance for 272 species of Australian passerines, across the whole order and within families. We measured abundance as mean and maximum abundance, and used a phylogenetic generalized least‐squares regression method within a maximum‐likelihood framework to control for effects of phylogeny. We also analysed the relationship within seven different habitat types. Results There was no correlation between range size and abundance for the whole set of species across all habitats. Analyses within families revealed some strong correlations but showed no consistent pattern. Likewise we found little evidence for any relationship or conflicting patterns in different habitats, except that woodland/forest habitat species exhibit a negative correlation between mean abundance and range size, whilst species in urban habitats exhibit a significant positive relationship between maximum abundance and range size. Despite the general lack of correlation, the raw data plots of range size and abundance in this study occupied a triangular space, with narrowly distributed species exhibiting a greater variation in abundances than widely distributed species. However, using a null model analysis, we demonstrate that this was due to a statistical artefact generated by the frequency distributions for the individual variables. Conclusions We find no evidence for a positive range size‐abundance relationship among Australian passerines. This absence of a relationship cannot be explained by any conflicting effects introduced by comparing across different habitats, nor is it explained by the fact that large proportions of Australia are arid. We speculate that the considerable isolation and evolutionary age of Australian passerines may be an explanatory factor.     

Eucalypts face increasing climate stress

Global climate change is already impacting species and ecosystems across the planet. Trees, although long‐lived, are sensitive to changes in climate, including climate extremes. Shifts in tree species' distributions will influence biodiversity and ecosystem function at scales ranging from local to landscape; dry and hot regions will be especially vulnerable. The Australian continent has been especially susceptible to climate change with extreme heat waves, droughts, and flooding in recent years, and this climate trajectory is expected to continue. We sought to understand how climate change may impact Australian ecosystems by modeling distributional changes in eucalypt species, which dominate or codominate most forested ecosystems across Australia. We modeled a representative sample of Eucalyptus and Corymbia species (n = 108, or 14% of all species) using newly available Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios developed for the 5th Assessment Report of the IPCC, and bioclimatic and substrate predictor variables. We compared current, 2025, 2055, and 2085 distributions. Overall, Eucalyptus and Corymbia species in the central desert and open woodland regions will be the most affected, losing 20% of their climate space under the mid‐range climate scenario and twice that under the extreme scenario. The least affected species, in eastern Australia, are likely to lose 10% of their climate space under the mid‐range climate scenario and twice that under the extreme scenario. Range shifts will be lateral as well as polewards, and these east–west transitions will be more significant, reflecting the strong influence of precipitation rather than temperature changes in subtropical and midlatitudes. These net losses, and the direction of shifts and contractions in range, suggest that many species in the eastern and southern seaboards will be pushed toward the continental limit and that large tracts of currently treed landscapes, especially in the continental interior, will change dramatically in terms of species composition and ecosystem structure.     

Fire and the relative roles of weather,climate and landscape characteristics in the Great Lakes‐St. Lawrence forest of Canada

Question: In deciduous‐dominated forest landscapes, what are the relative roles of fire weather, climate, human and biophysical landscape characteristics for explaining variation in large fire occurrence and area burned? Location: The Great Lakes‐St. Lawrence forest of Canada. Methods: We characterized the recent (1959–1999) regime of large (≥ 200 ha) fires in 26 deciduous‐dominated landscapes and analysed these data in an information‐theoretic framework to compare six hypotheses that related fire occurrence and area burned to fire weather severity, climate normals, population and road densities, and enduring landscape characteristics such as surficial deposits and large lakes. Results: 392 large fires burned 833 698 ha during the study period, annually burning on average 0.07%± 0.42% of forested area in each landscape. Fire activity was strongly seasonal, with most fires and area burned occurring in May and June. A combination of antecedent‐winter precipitation, fire season precipitation deficit/surplus and percent of landscape covered by well‐drained surficial deposits best explained fire occurrence and area burned. Fire occurrence varied only as a function of fire weather and climate variables, whereas area burned was also explained by percent cover of aspen and pine stands, human population density and two enduring characteristics: percent cover of large water bodies and glaciofluvial deposits. Conclusion: Understanding the relative role of these variables may help design adaptation strategies for forecasted increases in fire weather severity by allowing (1) prioritization of landscapes according to enduring characteristics and (2) management of their composition so that substantially increased fire activity would be necessary to transform landscape structure and composition.     

Occupancy Models of Nesting-Season Habitat Associations of Red-Shouldered Hawks in Central Minnesota

ABSTRACT Red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) are a species of special conservation concern in much of the Great Lakes region, and apparent population declines are thought to be primarily due to habitat loss and alteration. To evaluate red-shouldered hawk-habitat associations during the nesting season and at the landscape scale, we conducted repeated call-broadcast surveys in central Minnesota, USA, across 3 landscapes that represented a range of landscape conditions as a result of differing management practices. In 2004, we conducted repeated call-broadcast surveys at 131 locations in 2 study areas, and in 2005, we surveyed 238 locations in 3 study areas. We developed models relating habitat characteristics at 2 spatial scales to red-shouldered hawk occupancy and assessed support for these models in an information-theoretic framework. Overall, a small proportion of nonforest (grass, clear-cut area, forest <5 yr old), and a large proportion of mature deciduous forest (>40 yr old), had the strongest association with red-shouldered hawk occupancy (proportion of sites occupied) at both spatial scales. The landscape conditions we examined appeared to contain a habitat transition important to red-shouldered hawks. We found, in predominately forest landscapes, the amount of open habitat was most strongly associated with red-shouldered hawk occupancy, but in landscapes that included slightly less mature forest and more extensive open habitats, the extent of mature deciduous forest was most strongly associated with red-shouldered hawk occupancy. Our results suggested that relatively small (<5 ha) patches of open habitat (clear-cuts) in otherwise forested landscapes did not appear to influence red-shouldered hawk occupancy. Whereas, in an otherwise similar landscape, with smaller amounts of mature deciduous forest and larger (>15 ha) patches of open habitat, red-shouldered hawk occupancy decreased, suggesting a threshold in landscape composition, based on both the amount of mature forest and open area, is important in managing forest landscapes for red-shouldered hawks. Our results show that during the nesting season, red-shouldered hawks in central Minnesota occupy at similar rates landscapes with different habitat compositions resulting from different management strategies and that management strategies that create small openings may not negatively affect red-shouldered hawk occupancy.     

Using restoration as an experimental framework to test provenancing strategies and climate adaptability

Restoring degraded Australian landscapes through revegetation is a key concern of land holders, NGOs and government agencies. With the advent of climate change, it is increasingly important that revegetation activities take into consideration the species and provenance of plant materials to ensure that environmental plantings will be resilient to future climate conditions. A major strength of the past 30 years restoration programmes is the development of a distributed network of educated and experienced practitioners. We have recently invited stakeholders from among this network to participate in a process to cost‐effectively build Environmental Research Infrastructure – a nationally distributed network of restoration plantings that explore a broad range of research activities including a better understanding of the adaptive responses of different species and provenances. This would also facilitate long‐term monitoring of change and adaptation across Australia, providing a wealth of information to inform future conservation and restoration programmes.     

Vegetation distribution in relation to topographically driven processes in southwestern Australia

Abstract. This study assesses the utility of modelling approaches to predict vegetation distribution in agricultural landscapes of southwestern Australia. Climate surfaces, hy‐drologic and erosion process models are used to link vegetation to environmental variables. Generalized additive models (GAM) are derived for presence/absence data of mapped vegetation types. Vegetation distribution shows significant responses to rainfall and subsequent water redistribution due to the relief; however, these variables are insufficient to effectively explain vegetation patterns at the local scale. Accordingly, prediction accuracy remains low (κ‐values below 0.5). The striking unpredictability of the local distribution of the vegetation in the Wheatbelt is discussed with regard to the performance of topographically driven processes in subdued landscapes and with regard to geological, historical and biological factors determining the southwestern Australian plant species distribution.     

Transitional forestry in New Zealand: re-evaluating the design and management of forest systems through the lens of forest purpose

Forestry management worldwide has become increasingly effective at obtaining high timber yields from productive forests. In New Zealand, a focus on improving an increasingly successful and largely Pinus radiata plantation forestry model over the last 150 years has resulted in some of the most productive timber forests in the temperate zone. In contrast to this success, the full range of forested landscapes across New Zealand, including native forests, are impacted by an array of pressures from introduced pests, diseases, and a changing climate, presenting a collective risk of losses in biological, social and economic value. As the national government policies incentivise reforestation and afforestation, the social acceptability of some forms of newly planted forests is also being challenged. Here, we review relevant literature in the area of integrated forest landscape management to optimise forests as nature-based solutions, presenting ‘transitional forestry’ as a model design and management paradigm appropriate to a range of forest types, where forest purpose is placed at the heart of decision making. We use New Zealand as a case study region, describing how this purpose-led transitional forestry model can benefit a cross section of forest types, from industrialised forest plantations to dedicated conservation forests and a range of multiple-purpose forests in between. Transitional forestry is an ongoing multi-decade process of change from current ‘business-as-usual’ forest management to future systems of forest management, embedded across a continuum of forest types. This holistic framework incorporates elements to enhance efficiencies of timber production, improve overall forest landscape resilience, and reduce some potential negative environmental impacts of commercial plantation forestry, while allowing the ecosystem functioning of commercial and non-commercial forests to be maximised, with increased public and biodiversity conservation value. Implementation of transitional forestry addresses tensions that arise between meeting climate mitigation targets and improving biodiversity criteria through afforestation, alongside increasing demand for forest biomass feedstocks to meet the demands of near-term bioenergy and bioeconomy goals. As ambitious government international targets are set for reforestation and afforestation using both native and exotic species, there is an increasing opportunity to make such transitions via integrated thinking that optimises forest values across a continuum of forest types, while embracing the diversity of ways in which such targets can be reached.     

基于LSMM与MSPA的深圳市绿色景观连通性研究

基于线性光谱混合模型(LSMM,Linear Spectral Mixture Model),引入形态学空间格局分析(MSPA,Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis)进行城市地域绿色景观连通性评价。根据城市绿色景观特点和MSPA方法中的7种连通性类型的涵义,定义了城市绿色景观连通性功能类型。以深圳市1986年、1995年、2000年、2005年及2010年五期Landsat TM影像为数据源,应用线性光谱混合模型提取植被覆盖率,得到深圳市植被覆盖图。在此基础上,提取出高、全植被覆盖作为目标像元进行MSPA处理,分析植被覆盖状况与绿色景观功能类型的时序总体特征及空间梯度动态。结果表明:深圳市绿色景观破碎程度较高,表现为对结构连通性贡献最小的斑块类型总数最大。城市内部东西部连通性呈现出不同变化的趋势;右侧外圈层的大鹏半岛结构连通性最佳;在同一城市化发展梯度上,东部的样带连通性水平比西部要好。在城市化过程中,深圳市高、全覆被植被像元连通性大小受以下因素的影响:城市化程度,地形因素及区域定位。在同一城市化程度上,地形因素对景观连通性的影响较大。从整体的时间变化和空间梯度动态分析可知,在快速城市化过程中植被覆盖率和连通性功能均下降,而到稳定城市化阶段植被覆盖率和连通性均得到改善。研究表明线性光谱混合模型与形态学空间格局分析相结合可以较好的表征城市绿色景观连通性类型时空分布特征,进而明晰城市化过程与区域内绿色景观数量及连通性动态变化关系。     

Defining the landscape of adaptive genetic diversity

Whether they are used to describe fitness, genome architecture or the spatial distribution of environmental variables, the concept of a landscape has figured prominently in our collective reasoning. The tradition of landscapes in evolutionary biology is one of fitness mapped onto axes defined by phenotypes or molecular sequence states. The characteristics of these landscapes depend on natural selection, which is structured across both genomic and environmental landscapes, and thus, the bridge among differing uses of the landscape concept (i.e. metaphorically or literally) is that of an adaptive phenotype and its distribution across geographical landscapes in relation to selective pressures. One of the ultimate goals of evolutionary biology should thus be to construct fitness landscapes in geographical space. Natural plant populations are ideal systems with which to explore the feasibility of attaining this goal, because much is known about the quantitative genetic architecture of complex traits for many different plant species. What is less known are the molecular components of this architecture. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Parchman et al. (2012) pioneer one of the first truly genome-wide association studies in a tree that moves us closer to this form of mechanistic understanding for an adaptive phenotype in natural populations of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.).     

Geographical Variation in Body Size and Sexual Size Dimorphism in an Australian Lizard,Boulenger's Skink (Morethia boulengeri)

Ecogeographical rules help explain spatial and temporal patterns in intraspecific body size. However, many of these rules, when applied to ectothermic organisms such as reptiles, are controversial and require further investigation. To explore factors that influence body size in reptiles, we performed a heuristic study to examine body size variation in an Australian lizard, Boulenger''s Skink Morethia boulengeri from agricultural landscapes in southern New South Wales, south-eastern Australia. We collected tissue and morphological data on 337 adult lizards across a broad elevation and climate gradient. We used a model-selection procedure to determine if environmental or ecological variables best explained body size variation. We explored the relationship between morphology and phylogenetic structure before modeling candidate variables from four broad domains: (1) geography (latitude, longitude and elevation), (2) climate (temperature and rainfall), (3) habitat (vegetation type, number of logs and ground cover attributes), and (4) management (land use and grazing history). Broad phylogenetic structure was evident, but on a scale larger than our study area. Lizards were sexually dimorphic, whereby females had longer snout-vent length than males, providing support for the fecundity selection hypothesis. Body size variation in M. boulengeri was correlated with temperature and rainfall, a pattern consistent with larger individuals occupying cooler and more productive parts of the landscape. Climate change forecasts, which predict warmer temperature and increased aridity, may result in reduced lizard biomass and decoupling of trophic interactions with potential implications for community organization and ecosystem function.     

Scattered trees: a complementary strategy for facilitating adaptive responses to climate change in modified landscapes?

1.  Facilitating adaptive responses of organisms in modified landscape will be essential to overcome the negative effects of climate change and its interaction with land use change. Without such action, many organisms will be prevented from achieving the predicted range shifts they need to survive.
2.  Scattered trees are a prominent feature of many modified landscapes, and could play an important role in facilitating climate change adaptation. They are keystone structures because of the disproportionally large ecological values and ecosystem services that they provide relative to the area they occupy in these landscapes. The provision of habitat and connectivity will be particularly relevant.
3.  Scattered trees are declining in modified landscapes due to elevated tree mortality and poor recruitment often associated with intensive land use. The continuing global decline of scattered trees will undermine the capacity of many organisms to adapt to climate change.
4.   Synthesis and applications. The sustainable management of scattered trees in modified landscapes could complement other strategies for facilitating climate change adaptation. They create continuous, though sparse, vegetation cover that permits multi-directional movements of biota across landscapes and ecological networks. They have the capacity to span ecosystems and climatic gradients that cannot be captured in formal reserves alone. The management of scattered trees should be an integral part of conservation objectives and agricultural activities in modified landscapes. Public investment, through mechanisms such as agri-environmental schemes, in rotational grazing, temporary set-asides, tree-planting and regulations that reduce clearing and early mortality among standing trees will improve the capacity of biota to adapt to climate change.     

Scattered woody vegetation promotes European brown hare population

European brown hare populations have declined during the last decades. Agricultural intensification has been identified as a relevant driver of this process and agri-environment schemes have been implemented to foster biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Because species-specific outcomes of measures strongly depend on tailored design of the policy framework and the local management, while changing climate may pose additional challenges, policy and management need science-based information of which landscape composition should be promoted to achieve set biodiversity goals.Here, we used direct observations of European brown hares over 20 years for evaluating the effects of landscape composition and weather conditions on European brown hare density. For the first time, our analysis compared the estimates of machine learning (gradient boosting machine) and linear mixed models in terms of importance of a wide range of explanatory variables for European brown hare densities and effect trends.Scattered woody vegetation, as represented by the two variables transitional woodland-shrub and small woody features, was on top rankings among the predictors and greater proportions of these elements were accompanied by sharp increases of European brown hare density. Also warmer winter temperature had a positive effect.We conclude that promoting scattered woody vegetation in agricultural landscapes is a powerful tool for improving European brown hare habitat quality. Particularly with the increasing dynamic in agriculture due to climate change, incentives and regulations that create a long-lasting heterogeneity in the landscape composition through near-natural elements can support the population of this popular mammal.     

Australia offers unique insight into the ecology of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: An opportunity not to be lost

Typified by ancient soils and unique assemblages of flora, Australia provides opportunities to expand our understanding of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Despite their ubiquity, key aspects of Australian AM fungal ecology remain buried due to our limited knowledge of their biogeography and their potential adaptation to Australia's environmental conditions. This knowledge gap is particularly extraordinary given that the characteristics of the Australian environment are likely to provide unique insights into AM fungal ecology and evolution. Extensive exploration of the diversity and distribution of AM fungi across the continent is overdue. In pursuit of this goal, ecologists should employ the most effective and pragmatic molecular approaches, while making use of well-curated databases. We urge researchers to examine the biogeography of Australian AM fungi meaningfully, leveraging the distinctive attributes of Australian landscapes, such as the demographics of plant mycorrhizal types and the characteristic interplay with fire. Documenting AM fungal communities across Australia will not only provide unique insights into their ecology but is also pivotal to being able to incorporate these organisms into land management for conservation, restoration and sustainable agriculture.