Expression,Purification and Molecular Structure Modeling of Thioredoxin (Trx) and Thioredoxin Reductase (TrxR) from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans</Emphasis>

The thioredoxin system consists of thioredoxin (Trx), thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and NADPH, which plays several key roles in maintaining the redox environment of the cell. In Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, thioredoxin system may play important functions in the activity regulation of periplasmic proteins and energy metabolism. Here, we cloned thioredoxin (trx) and thioredoxin reductase (trxR) genes from Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, and expressed the genes in Escherichia coli. His-Trx and His-TrxR were purified to homogeneity with one-step Ni-NTA affinity column chromatography. Site-directed mutagenesis results confirmed that Cys33, Cys36 of thioredoxin, and Cys142, Cys145 of thioredoxin reductase were active-site residues.     

Genes and pathways for CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> fixation in the obligate,chemolithoautotrophic acidophile, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans</Emphasis>, Carbon fixation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. ferrooxidans</Emphasis>

Background  

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is chemolithoautotrophic γ-proteobacterium that thrives at extremely low pH (pH 1-2). Although a substantial amount of information is available regarding CO₂ uptake and fixation in a variety of facultative autotrophs, less is known about the processes in obligate autotrophs, especially those living in extremely acidic conditions, prompting the present study.     

Gene expression modulation by chalcopyrite and bornite in Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a mesophilic, acidophilic, chemolithoautotrophic bacterium that obtains energy from the oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe²⁺), elemental sulfur and reduced sulfur compounds. The industrial interest in A. ferrooxidans resides in its capacity to oxidize insoluble metal sulfides into soluble metal sulfates, thus allowing the recovery of the desired metals from low-grade sulfide ores. In the present work, RNA arbitrarily primed PCR (RAP-PCR) was performed to identify cDNAs differentially expressed in A. ferrooxidans cells grown in the presence of Fe²⁺ and cells maintained for 24 h in the presence of the copper sulfides bornite and chalcopyrite. Eighteen cDNAs corresponding to genes with known function were identified, and their relative expression was further characterized by real-time quantitative PCR. Bornite had a mild effect on the expression of the 18 genes analyzed. None of these genes was down-regulated and among the few genes up-regulated, it is worth mentioning lepA and def-2 that are involved in protein synthesis. Chalcopyrite presented the most significant changes. Five genes related to protein processing were down-regulated, and another 5 genes related to the transport system were up-regulated. The up- and down-regulation of these genes in the presence of bornite and chalcopyrite could be due to alterations in the ideal pH, presence of copper ions in solution and nutrient limitation. The results suggest that gene expression modulation might be important for the A. ferrooxidans early response to copper sulfides.     

Metabolic reconstruction of sulfur assimilation in the extremophile <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans</Emphasis> based on genome analysis

Background  

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidansis a gamma-proteobacterium that lives at pH2 and obtains energy by the oxidation of sulfur and iron. It is used in the biomining industry for the recovery of metals and is one of the causative agents of acid mine drainage. Effective tools for the study of its genetics and physiology are not in widespread use and, despite considerable effort, an understanding of its unusual physiology remains at a rudimentary level. Nearly complete genome sequences ofA. ferrooxidansare available from two public sources and we have exploited this information to reconstruct aspects of its sulfur metabolism.     

采用SELDI蛋白质芯片技术研究氧化亚铁硫杆菌对磷酸盐缺失的反应

氧化亚铁硫杆菌(At.f)是能够利用Fe2 和硫化矿来获取能量的一种化能自养菌.这种细菌在金属硫化矿的生物浸出中起着重要的作用.在硫化矿的生物浸出过程中,浸矿细菌通常会遇到多种胁迫条件,如温度的变化、营养成分的缺失和pH值的变化等,这些因素会影响到细菌的活性.因此对在胁迫条件下这类细菌的应急反应生理机制的研究具有重要的意义.SELDI蛋白质芯片技术是近年一种高通量的蛋白质组学研究技术.测定了以Fe2 为能源正常条件培养的At.f和磷酸盐缺失培养At.f的生长情况,绘制了相应的生长曲线;采用NP20蛋白质芯片,对At.f总蛋白的蛋白质芯片上样量进行了优化.在此基础上,采用IMAC-Cu、SAX2、WCX2三种特异性SELDI蛋白质芯片技术,获取了磷酸盐缺失培养At.f与正常条件培养的At.f的比较蛋白质图谱,采用软件对比较蛋白质图谱进行分析,发现了磷酸盐缺失培养At.f的13个明显差异表达的蛋白质分子,为进一步分离鉴定这些差异表达蛋白质奠定了基础.     

Bioleaching of chalcopyrite by pure and mixed cultures of Acidithiobacillus spp. and Leptospirillum ferriphilum

Bioleaching is an economical method for the recovery of metals that requires low investment and operation costs. Furthermore, it is generally more environmentally friendly than many physicochemical metal extraction processes. The bioleaching of chalcopyrite in shake flasks was investigated with pure and mixed cultures of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, Acidithiobacillus caldus, and Leptospirillum ferriphilum. The mixed cultures containing both iron- and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria were more efficient than the pure culture alone. The presence of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria positively increased the dissolution rate and the percentage recovery of copper from chalcopyrite. Mixed cultures consisting of moderately thermophilic L. ferriphilum and A. caldus leached chalcopyrite more effectively than mesophilic A. ferrooxidans pure and mixed cultures. The decrease of the chalcopyrite dissolution rate in leaching systems containing A. ferrooxidans after 12–16 days coincided with the formation of jarosite precipitation as a passivation layer on the mineral surface during bioleaching. Low pH significantly reduces jarosite formation in pure and mixed cultures of L. ferriphilum and A. caldus.     

Isolation of a strain of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus caldus</Emphasis> and its role in bioleaching of chalcopyrite

A moderately thermophilic and acidophilic sulfur-oxidizing bacterium named S₂, was isolated from coal heap drainage. The bacterium was motile, Gram-negative, rod-shaped, measured 0.4 to 0.6 by 1 to 2 μm, and grew optimally at 42–45°C and an initial pH of 2.5. The strain S₂ grew autotrophically by using elemental sulfur, sodium thiosulfate and potassium tetrathionate as energy sources. The strain did not use organic matter and inorganic minerals including ferrous sulfate, pyrite and chalcopyrite as energy sources. The morphological, biochemical, physiological characterization and analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated that the strain S₂ is most closely related to Acidithiobacillus caldus (>99% similarity in gene sequence). The combination of the strain S₂ with Leptospirillum ferriphilum or Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans in chalcopyrite bioleaching improved the copper-leaching efficiency. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis revealed that the chalcopyrite surface in a mixed culture of Leptospirillum ferriphilum and Acidithiobacillus caldus was heavily etched. The energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis indicated that Acidithiobacillus caldus has the potential role to enhance the recovery of copper from chalcopyrite by oxidizing the sulfur formed during the bioleaching progress.     

Transporter protein genes are differentially expressed in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acidithiobacillus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">ferrooxidans</Emphasis> LR maintained in contact with covellite

Gene expression in response to the copper sulfide, covellite (CuS), in Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans LR was investigated by using RNA arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction (RAP-PCR). Seven genes that encode for proteins involved with transport and binding were up-regulated in the presence of CuS. The differential expression of the seven genes was confirmed by real-time PCR. An atomic absorption analysis of the covellite samples showed that the quantity of copper(II) ions in solution changed from zero to approximately 1.11 g/l after 24 h, and the pH changed from 1.8 to 4.0, suggesting that the copper ions in solution and the pH alteration may be responsible, at least in part, for the up-regulation of the transporter genes in the presence of covellite. An in silico protein–protein interaction analysis of the proteins encoded by the seven transporter protein genes, as well as of proteins encoded by genes of the same functional category that are adjacent to the seven genes identified by RAP-PCR, showed that besides the correlated function, the transporter proteins may act in different steps of the bacterial response to covellite.     

The Effects of Bacterial Leaching on Metal Partitioning in Sewage Sludge

The partitioning of Mn, Al, Zn, Cu and Ti ions in municipal sewage sludge was investigated before and after bioleaching processes effectuated by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. Oxidation–reduction potential increase and pH decrease were obtained as a result of bacterial activity. A less pronounced and constant decrease was obtained with A. ferrooxidans, whereas A. thiooxidans presented a lag phase before a steep pH decrease. Metal solubilization was accomplished in experimental systems supplemented with energy source, Fe²⁺ for A. ferrooxidans and S⁰ for A. thiooxidans. Solubilization efficiency differed for each metal except for Al, and was relatively similar for either organism. Metal partitioning was conducted using a five-step sequential extraction procedure before and after the bioleaching. The results indicated that Zn and Mn ions were mostly associated with the organic fraction, whereas Cu, Al and Ti ions with the sulphide/residue fraction. The bioleaching process caused prompt solubilization of metals mostly associated with the more labile fractions (exchangeable, adsorbed and organically bound metals), whereas those associated to the less labile ones (EDTA and sulphide/residue fractions) were exchanged towards more labile fractions.     

Molecular characterization of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans strains isolated from mine wastes in Brazil

Nineteen strains of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, including 12 strains isolated from coal, copper, gold and uranium mines in Brazil, strains isolated from similar sources in other countries and the type strains of the two species were characterized together with the type strain of A. caldus by using a combination of molecular systematic methods, namely ribotyping, BOX- and ERIC-PCR and DNA-DNA hybridization assays. Data derived from the molecular fingerprinting analyses showed that the tested strains encompassed a high degree of genetic variability. Two of the Brazilian A. ferrooxidans organisms (strains SSP and PCE) isolated from acid coal mine waste and uranium mine effluent, respectively, and A. thiooxidans strain DAMS, isolated from uranium mine effluent, were the most genetically divergent organisms. The DNA-DNA hybridization data did not support the allocation of Acidithiobacillus strain SSP to the A. ferrooxidans genomic species, as it shared only just over 40% DNA relatedness with the type strain of the species. Acidithiobacillus strain SSP was not clearly related to A. ferrooxidans in the 16S rDNA tree.     

Genomic insights into the iron uptake mechanisms of the biomining microorganism Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Commercial bioleaching of copper and the biooxidation of gold is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly process for metal recovery. A partial genome sequence of the acidophilic, bioleaching bacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is available from two public sources. This information has been used to build preliminary models that describe how this microorganism confronts unusually high iron loads in the extremely acidic conditions (pH 2) found in natural environments and in bioleaching operations. A. ferrooxidans contains candidate genes for iron uptake, sensing, storage, and regulation of iron homeostasis. Predicted proteins exhibit significant amino acid similarity with known proteins from neutrophilic organisms, including conservation of functional motifs, permitting their identification by bioinformatics tools and allowing the recognition of common themes in iron transport across distantly related species. However, significant differences in amino acid sequence were detected in pertinent domains that suggest ways in which the periplasmic and outer membrane proteins of A. ferrooxidans maintain structural integrity and relevant protein-protein contacts at low pH. Unexpectedly, the microorganism also contains candidate genes, organized in operon-like structures that potentially encode at least 11 siderophore systems for the uptake of Fe(III), although it does not exhibit genes that could encode the biosynthesis of the siderophores themselves. The presence of multiple Fe(III) uptake systems suggests that A. ferrooxidans can inhabit aerobic environments where iron is scarce and where siderophore producers are present. It may also help to explain why it cannot tolerate high Fe(III) concentrations in bioleaching operations where it is out-competed by Leptospirillum species.