The effect of temperature on growth and lipid and fatty acid composition on marine microalgae used for biodiesel production

Cultivation temperature is one of the major factors affecting the growth and lipid accumulation of microalgae. In this study, the effects of temperature on the growth, lipid content, fatty acid composition and biodiesel properties of the marine microalgae Chaetoceros sp. FIKU035, Tetraselmis suecica FIKU032 and Nannochloropsis sp. FIKU036 were investigated. These species were cultured at different temperatures (25, 30, 35 and 40 °C). The results showed that the specific growth rate, biomass and lipid content of all microalgae decreased with increasing temperature. With regards to fatty acids, the presence of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in T. suecica FIKU032 and Nannochloropsis sp. FIKU036 decreased with increasing temperature, in contrast with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Moreover, Chaetoceros sp. FIKU035 was the only species that could grow at 40 °C. The highest lipid productivity was observed in Chaetoceros sp. FIKU035 when cultivated at 25 °C (66.73 ± 1.34 mg L^?1 day^?1) and 30 °C (61.35 ± 2.89 mg L^?1 day^?1). Moreover, the biodiesel properties (cetane number, cold filter plugging point, kinematic viscosity and density) of the lipids obtained from this species were in accordance with biodiesel standards. This study indicated that Chaetoceros sp. FIKU035 can be considered as a suitable species for biodiesel production in outdoor cultivation.     

A quantitative analysis of microalgal lipids for optimization of biodiesel and omega‐3 production

The lipid characteristics of microalgae are known to differ between species and change with growth conditions. This work provides a methodology for lipid characterization that enables selection of the optimal strain, cultivation conditions, and processing pathway for commercial biodiesel production from microalgae. Two different microalgal species, Nannochloropsis sp. and Chlorella sp., were cultivated under both nitrogen replete and nitrogen depleted conditions. Lipids were extracted and fractionated into three major classes and quantified gravimetrically. The fatty acid profile of each fraction was analyzed using GC–MS. The resulting quantitative lipid data for each of the cultures is discussed in the context of biodiesel and omega‐3 production. This approach illustrates how the growth conditions greatly affect the distribution of fatty acid present in the major lipid classes and therefore the suitability of the lipid extracts for biodiesel and other secondary products. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2013; 110: 2096–2104. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Microalgae for phosphorus removal and biomass production: a six species screen for dual‐purpose organisms

Microalgae biofuel production can be feasible when a second function is added, such as wastewater treatment. Microalgae differ in uptake of phosphorus (P) and growth, making top performer identification fundamental. The objective of this screen was to identify dual‐purpose candidates capable of high rates of P removal and growth. Three freshwater – Chlorella sp., Monoraphidium minutum sp., and Scenedesmus sp. – and three marine – Nannochloropsis sp., N. limnetica sp., and Tetraselmis suecica sp. – species were batch cultured in 250 mL flasks over 16 days to quantitate total phosphorus (TP) removal and growth as a function of P loads (control, and 5, 10, and 15 mg L^?1 enrichment of control). Experimental design used 100 μmol m^?2 s^?1 of light, a light/dark cycle of 14/10 h, and no CO₂ enrichment. Phosphorus uptake was dependent on species, duration of exposure, and treatment, with significant interaction effects. Growth was dependant on species and treatment. Not all species showed increased P removal with increasing P addition, and no species demonstrated higher growth. Nannochloropsis sp and N. limnetica sp. performed poorly across all treatments. Two dual‐purpose candidates were identified. At the 10 mg L^?1 treatment Monoraphidium minutum sp. removed 67.1% (6.66 mg L^?1 ± 0.60 SE) of TP at day 8, 79.3% (7.86 mg L^?1 ± 0.28 SE) at day 16, and biomass accumulation of 0.63 g L^?1 ± 0.06 SE at day 16. At the same treatment Tetraselmis suecica sp. removed 79.4% (6.98 mg L^?1 ± 0.24 SE) TP at day 8, 83.0% (7.30 mg L^?1 ± 0.60 SE) at day 16, and biomass of 0.55 g L^?1 ± 0.02 SE at day 16. These species merit further study using high‐density wastewater cultures and lipid profiling to assess suitability for a nutrient removal and biomass/biofuel production scheme.     

Effects of initial population density (IPD) on growth and lipid composition of Nannochloropsis sp.

The microalga Nannochloropsis sp. was cultured under different initial population densities (IPDs) ranging from 0.11 to 9.09 g L^?1. The IPD affected the biomass and lipid accumulation significantly. The algal cultured with higher IPD resulted higher biomass concentration (up to 13.07 g L^?1) in 10 days growth. The biomass productivity with 0.98 g L^?1 IPD was 0.75 g L^?1 d^?1 which was higher than that of other IPDs. For IPDs ranging from 0.11 to 0.98 g L^?1, with the increase of IPD, the biomass productivity increased, while for IPD over 0.98 g L^?1, the biomass productivity decreased. Lipid content of the algal culture started with 0.11 g L^?1 IPD reached to 42 % of dry weight. But with the increase of IPD, the lipid content decreased. Lipid composition was analyzed using thin layer chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection (TLC/FID). Seven lipid classes were identified and quantified. The main reserve lipid, triacylglyceride (TAG), accumulated under all different IPD conditions. However, with the increasing IPD values, TAG content decreased from 59.1 to 23.5 % of the total lipids. Based on these results, to obtain the maximal biomass productivity and lipid productivity of Nannochloropsis sp. in mass cultivation systems, it is necessary to select an appropriate IPD.     

Enhancement of total lipid yield by nitrogen,carbon, and iron supplementation in isolated microalgae

The biochemical contents and biodiesel production ability of three microalgal strains grown under different sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate, and ferric ammonium citrate (iron) levels were investigated. The highest biomass and lipid contents were found in Scenedesmus sp., Chlorella sp., and Chlamydomonas sp. when grown in normal BG‐11 containing sodium carbonate concentration at 0.03 g · L^?1, and in normal BG‐11 containing iron concentration (IC) at 0.009 or 0.012 g · L^?1. Increasing the sodium nitrate level increased the biomass content, but decreased the lipid content in all three microalgae. Among the three microalgae, Scenedesmus sp. showed the highest total lipid yield of 0.69 g · L^?1 under the IC of 0.012 g · L^?1. Palmitic and oleic acids were the major fatty acids of Scenedesmus sp. and Chlamydomonas sp. lipids. On the other hand, Chlorella sp. lipids were rich in palmitic, oleic, and linolenic acids, and henceforth contributing to poor biodiesel properties below the standard limits. The three isolated strains had a potential for biodiesel production. Nevertheless, Scenedesmus sp. from stone quarry pond water was the most suitable source for biodiesel production with tolerance toward the high concentration of sodium carbonate without the loss of its biodiesel properties.     

Growth,lipid content,productivity, and fatty acid composition of tropical microalgae for scale‐up production

Biomass and lipid productivity, lipid content, and quantitative and qualitative lipid composition are critical parameters in selecting microalgal species for commercial scale‐up production. This study compares lipid content and composition, and lipid and biomass productivity during logarithmic, late logarithmic, and stationary phase of Nannochloropsis sp., Isochrysis sp., Tetraselmis sp., and Rhodomonas sp. grown in L1‐, f/2‐, and K‐medium. Of the tested species, Tetraselmis sp. exhibited a lipid productivity of 3.9–4.8 g m^?2 day^?1 in any media type, with comparable lipid productivity by Nannochloropsis sp. and Isochrysis sp. when grown in L1‐medium. The dry biomass productivity of Tetraselmis sp. (33.1–45.0 g m^?2 day^?1) exceeded that of the other species by a factor 2–10. Of the organisms studied, Tetraselmis sp. had the best dry biomass and/or lipid production profile in large‐scale cultures. The present study provides a practical benchmark, which allows comparison of microalgal production systems with different footprints, as well as terrestrial systems. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010;107: 245–257. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Lipid productivity, settling potential and fatty acid profile of 11 microalgal species grown under nitrogen replete and limited conditions

Microalgae are a promising alternative source of oil for biodiesel production. Identification of a species with desirable characteristics is a key component towards achieving economic feasibility for the process. This has been compromised by a lack of data allowing effective interspecies comparison. Eleven species of microalgae, selected on the basis of available literature data, were tested for lipid productivity, gravity sedimentation and the suitability of their fatty acid profiles for biodiesel production. The response to nitrogen limitation was species-specific. Lipid yields and productivity were higher at 150?mg?L^?1 nitrate than at 1,500?mg?L^?1 for all species tested except Spirulina platensis. The Chlorophyta, particularly Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus, had the highest growth rates and showed the greatest increase in lipid content in response to nitrogen limitation. Cylindrotheca fusiformis, S. platensis, Scenedesmus and Tetraselmis suecica had the fastest settling rates and highest biomass recoveries after 24?h of gravity sedimentation. For most species, the fuel would need to be blended or culture conditions to be optimised to achieve the correct lipid profile in order for microalgal fuel to meet the European standards for biodiesel production (EN 14214). The most promising species overall were the freshwater algae Scenedesmus and C. vulgaris and the marine algae C. fusiformis and Nannochloropsis.     

Biomass and oil content of Chlorella sp., Haematococcus sp., Nannochloris sp. and Scenedesmus sp. under mixotrophic growth conditions in the presence of technical glycerol

The growth of algae strains Chlorella sp., Haematococcus sp., Nannochloris sp. and Scenedesmus sp. under mixotrophic conditions in the presence of different concentrations of technical glycerol was investigated with the aim of increasing biomass growth and algae oil content. The highest concentration of lipid obtained in media with 5 g L^?1 glycerol for Chlorella sp., Scenedesmus sp., Nannochloris sp. and Haematococcus sp. was 17.77, 22.34, 27.55 and 34.22 % larger than during the autotrophic growth of these species. Increases in triacylglycerols of up to ten times was observed for Scenedesmus sp. under mixotrophic conditions (using 10 g L^?1 glycerol), whereas an increase of 2.28 times was found for Haematococcus sp. The content of saturated fatty acids of Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Haematococcus and Nannochloris was 67.11, 34.63, 23.39 and 24.23 %, and the amount of unsaturated fatty acids was 32.9, 65.06, 79.61 and 75.78 % of total fatty acids, respectively. Growth on technical glycerol of these strains with light produced higher biomass concentrations and lipid content compared with autotrophic growth. The fatty acid content of oils from these species suggests their potential use as biodiesel feedstock.     

Improved Nile Red staining of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nannochloropsis</Emphasis> sp.

High-throughput screening of microalgae for use as a potential feedstock for biodiesel requires a reliable method for the rapid detection of intracellular neutral lipid content. In this study, we report a modified and improved Nile Red (NR) fluorescence staining procedure for use as a rapid and sensitive screening tool to estimate levels of intracellular neutral lipid in the picopleustonic microalgae, Nannochloropsis sp. Addition of either glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) into microalgae cultures greatly enhances lipid staining efficiency and increases the fluorescence intensity of stained cells. The optimized procedure requires glycerol and DMSO at the concentration of 0.1 and 0.165 g mL⁻¹, respectively, for peak fluorescence in a live culture of Nannochloropsis sp. Incubation for 5 min for glycerol-NR staining and 10 min for DMSO-NR staining at room temperature, in darkness, is used for the NR concentration of 0.3 and 0.7 μg mL⁻¹ for glycerol and DMSO, respectively. For the selection of lipid-rich cells of Nannochloropsis sp. using flow cytometric cell sorting, the glycerol-NR procedure is recommended as glycerol, unlike DMSO, does not inhibit subsequent growth of sorted cells.     

Increased lipid production of the marine oleaginous microalgae Isochrysis zhangjiangensis (Chrysophyta) by nitrogen supplement

Effects of nitrate feeding on the cell growth and lipid accumulation of marine microalgae Isochrysis zhangjiangensis were investigated. When nitrate was supplied at interval of 24 h, instead of 72 h, a high lipid content of 40.9% and a biomass density of 3.1 g L⁻¹ were obtained. To confirm whether I. zhangjiangensis accumulates lipid during nitrogen-repletion, a two-stage cultivation method was applied. This algal strain had a high lipid content during sustained nitrate addition and showed a high carbohydrate content under nitrate-depletion conditions. These results revealed that this algal strain can accumulate lipids under nitrogen-repletion conditions and accumulate carbohydrate under nitrogen-depletion conditions. When cultured in an extremely high nitrate concentration, 9 g L⁻¹ at 24 h intervals, the growth of algal cells was suppressed, but the highest lipid content of 53% was attained. This special characteristic of lipid accumulation makes I. zhangjiangensis an ideal candidate for producing biodiesel using N-rich wastewater.     

CHEMICAL PROFILE OF SELECTED SPECIES OF MICROALGAE WITH EMPHASIS ON LIPIDS1

The lipid profile of seven species of unicellular eukaryotic microalgae grown under controlled conditions was studied with emphasis on the hydrocarbons and the fatty acids as part of a search for oil-producing algae. Green, slow-growing colonies of Botryococcus braunii Kutz contained the highest lipid content of 45% based on the organic weight, with an increase to 55% under nitrogen deficiency and with no effect of sodium chloride stress. Ankistrodesmus sp. Thomas, Dunaliella spp., Isochrysis sp., Nannochloris sp. Thomas, and Nitzschia sp. Chapman contained an average of 25% lipids under nitrogen sufficient conditions. Nitrogen deficiency resulted in significant increase in the lipid content in all species but Dunaliella spp., which produced a higher content of carbohydrates. Significant low amounts of acyclic hydrocarbons were detected only in Botryococcus braunii Kutz and not in the other algae. The major hydrocarbon fractions in nitrogen deficient Botryococcus braunii Kutz, Dunaliella salina Thomas, Isochrysis spp. and Nannochloris sp. Thomas were cyclic and branched polyunsaturated components which were identified as various isoprenoid derivatives. The polar lipid composition of glycolipids and phospholipids of all species investigated was fairly typical of photosynthetic eukaryotic algae. Fatty acid composition was species specific, with changes occurring in the relative amounts of individual acids of cells cultivated under different conditions and growth phases. All species synthesized C14:0, C16.0, C18:1, C18:2 and C18:3 fatty acids; C 16:4 in Ankistrodesmus sp. Thomas; C18:4 and C 22.6 in Isochrysis sp.; C16:2, C16:3 and C20:5 in Nannochloris sp. Thomas; C16:2, C16:3 and C20:5 in Nitzschia sp. Chapman. Nitrogen deficiency and salt stress induced accumulation of C18:1 in all treated species and to a lesser extent in Botryococcus braunii Kutz. The low production of hydrocarbons under optimal growth conditions and the high production of hydrocarbons under limited growth conditions cannot support the notion that microalgae can be utilized as biosolar energy converters for the production of liquid fuel, but point to the availability of a variety of neutral and polar lipid products.     

Monitoring oil production for biobased feedstock in the microalga <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nannochloropsis</Emphasis> sp.: a novel method combining the BODIPY BD-C12 fluorescent probe and simple image processing

A simple reliable method with fast response for lipid detection and quantification is proposed, combining a new highly lipophilic fluorescent probe BODIPY BD-C12 and image analysis to determine the algal lipid content and the lipid production in the microalgae Nannochloropsis sp. Lipid bodies stained with BODIPY BD-C12 have a characteristic multicolor fluorescence, and their volumes were determined using a sphere volume approach. The method developed was applied in the evaluation of lipid accumulation by Nannochloropsis sp. under different cultivation conditions (varying nitrate and salinity concentrations and combined effect of these two variables). The results show an increase of lipid content in Nannochloropsis sp. cultivated in nitrogen replete and depleted conditions, from 9.4 to 40.8 μm³ cell^?1 and 35.5 to 73.5%, respectively. The findings are also compared with conventional methods for determination of neutral lipids and with results obtained from the dyes Nile Red and BODIPY 505/515. A reasonable agreement between neutral lipid production measured by BODIPY BD-C12 and gravimetric methods (correlation coefficient of 0.98) was obtained. The neutral lipids production decreased from 964.6 to 244.8 mg L^?1 and from 809.1 to 396.7 mg L^?1, as the nitrate concentration increased from 0 to 0.3 g L^?1. It is observed that, with the two commercially available dyes, lipid quantification using Nile Red leads to an overestimation of lipids, while the use of BODIPY 505/515 promoted unreliable measures due to rapid bleaching of the chromophore. The method proposed shows excellent potential to become a standard, yet advanced, strategy for rapid evaluation and quantification of intracellular lipids in microalgae, a crucial step of the scaling-up process involved in the production of biobased products.     

Rapid estimation of lipid content in an Antarctic ice alga (Chlamydomonas sp.) using the lipophilic fluorescent dye BODIPY505/515

Chlamydomonas sp. ICE-L, isolated from Antarctic coastal marine environments, was selected as a high lipid producer, which may be useful for biodiesel production. The lipophilic fluorescent dye BODIPY505/515 was used to determine the algal lipid content. Lipid bodies stained with BODIPY505/515 have a characteristic green fluorescence, and their volumes were determined using the sphere volume formula. In this study, lipid accumulation by Chlamydomonas ICE-L was analyzed under different cultivation conditions (nitrogen deficiency and UV-B radiation). The results demonstrated that nitrogen deficiency and UV-B radiation could significantly promote the accumulation of lipid content per cell. The highest yields of total lipid content (reaching 84?μL?L^?1) were obtained in full Provasoli medium after 12?days of cultivation, but not in the nitrogen-deficient medium. The inoculum used in this experiment was obtained from the late-exponential growth phase. The main reason was that the cell numbers in nitrogen-deficient medium had not increased and total lipid contents were offset by the lower growth rate. Considering the high lipid content in Chlamydomonas sp. ICE-L, this alga might be a promising alternative species for production of microalgal oil for the production of renewable biodiesel in the future.     

Enhanced production of biomass and lipids by supplying CO2 in marine microalga Dunaliella sp.

Non-food-based biofuel feedstocks are in high demand worldwide. Among the various feedstocks, microalgae are the most promising feedstock for mitigating atmospheric CO₂ and producing biodiesel. In this study, various concentrations of CO₂, from 0.03 to 12%, were used to investigate their effect on the cell growth, biomass and lipid production and fatty acid composition of Dunaliella sp. in a closed photobioreactor. The results showed that the highest biomass and total lipids, 521 mg/L/d and 40 mg/L/d, respectively, were produced with 5% CO₂ aeration during the logarithmic growth phase. The oleic acid (18:1n9c) and elaidic acid (18:1n9t) contents were increased approximately two fold. The physiological responses of Dunaliella sp. at 10% CO₂ were similar to those at 5% CO₂. Therefore, the present results suggest that 5–10% is a suitable CO₂ concentration range for Dunaliella sp. growth to mitigate atmospheric CO₂ and increase biofuel production.     

Selective effect of the herbicide DCMU on unicellular algae — a potential tool to maintain monoalgal mass culture ofNannochloropsis

The selective effect of DCMU on photosynthetic activity and growth rate was examined in several marine unicellular algae:Nannochloropsis sp. (Eustigmatohyceae),Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyceae)Isochrysis galbana (Prymnesiophyceae) andChaetoceros sp. (Bacillariophyceae). DCMU at 10^–7 M caused an immediate decrease in the photosynthetic rate ofDunaliella andIsochrysis (about 50% inhibition), whereas 10^–6 M imposed 80% inhibition in the photosynthetic rate ofChaetoceros. InNannochloropsis the rate was affected only when DCMU concentration exceeded 10^–6M. Cellular growth rate of all studied algae was affected by DCMU in a similar manner to photosynthesis. The differential effect of DCMU was further examined in mixed cultures in whichNannochloropsis was cultivated together with an additional species simulating a contamination situation of aNannochloropsis culture. When DCMU was added at concentrations higher than 10^–7 M, the growth of the competing algae significantly decreased, whileNannochloropsis maintained a relatively high growth rate. Consequently, after a growth period of 4 to 7 days a clear domination ofNannochloropsis was observed. These results demonstrate that DCMU and probably other herbicides of similar characteristics can be used effectively as a selective tool to suppress contaminating unicellular algae in open ponds in order to maintain a monoculture ofNannochloropsis.     

Nutritional Evaluation of Australian Microalgae as Potential Human Health Supplements

This study investigated the biochemical suitability of Australian native microalgal species Scenedesmus sp., Nannochloropsis sp., Dunaliella sp., and a chlorophytic polyculture as nutritional supplements for human health. The four microalgal cultures were harvested during exponential growth, lyophilized, and analysed for proximate composition (moisture, ash, lipid, carbohydrates, and protein), pigments, and amino acid and fatty acid profiles. The resulting nutritional value, based on biochemical composition, was compared to commercial Spirulina and Chlorella products. The Australian native microalgae exhibited similar, and in several cases superior, organic nutritional properties relative to the assessed commercial products, with biochemical profiles rich in high-quality protein, nutritious polyunsaturated fats (such as α-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid), and antioxidant pigments. These findings indicate that the microalgae assessed have great potential as multi-nutrient human health supplements.     

Physiological response of Nannochloropsis sp. to saline stress in laboratory batch cultures

In the present paper, we investigated the physiological response of the marine microalga Nannochloropsis sp. to salt stress (13, 27, 54, and 81 g L^?1 NaCl). Increasing the sodium chloride concentration caused up to a 70 % decrease in the chlorophyll a concentration, cell growth, and net photosynthesis rate. The chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements indicated a strong reduction in the effective quantum yield of photosystem II (?60 %) and an increase in nonphotochemical quenching when the cells were exposed to NaCl concentrations greater than 27 g L^?1 (control). In contrast, the specific lipid content increased up to 80 % when the sodium chloride concentration was increased from 27 to 54–81 g L^?1. These results are relevant for the outdoor cultivation of this microalga using open photobioreactors, in which microalgae are subjected to strong changes in salinity concentration caused by water evaporation.     

Growth and uptake kinetics of phosphate by benthic microalga Nitzschia sp. isolated from Hiroshima Bay,Japan

In the present study, we experimentally investigated the phosphate uptake kinetics of benthic microalga Nitzschia sp. isolated from Hiroshima Bay, Japan. The maximum uptake rate (ρ_max) obtained by short‐term experiments was 6.84 pmol cell^?1 h^?1 for phosphate. The half‐saturation constant for uptake (K_S) was 61.2 µmol cell^?1 h^?1. Both the ρ_max and Ks of this species were extremely high, suggesting that Nitzschia sp. is adapted to benthic environments, where nutrient concentrations are much higher than in the water column. The specific maximum growth rate (µ'_max) and minimum cell quota (Q₀) for the P‐limited condition, obtained by a semi‐continuous growth experiment, were 0.48 day^?1 and 0.045 pmol cell^?1, respectively. It is concluded that Nitzschia sp. could be a ‘storage strategist’ species, meaning it adapts so as to minimize the influence of fluctuations in phosphate conditions resulting from the change in redox conditions of sediment due to bioturbation.     

Lipid Profile Remodeling in Response to Nitrogen Deprivation in the Microalgae Chlorella sp. (Trebouxiophyceae) and Nannochloropsis sp. (Eustigmatophyceae)

Many species of microalgae produce greatly enhanced amounts of triacylglycerides (TAGs), the key product for biodiesel production, in response to specific environmental stresses. Improvement of TAG production by microalgae through optimization of growth regimes is of great interest. This relies on understanding microalgal lipid metabolism in relation to stress response in particular the deprivation of nutrients that can induce enhanced TAG synthesis. In this study, a detailed investigation of changes in lipid composition in Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. in response to nitrogen deprivation (N-deprivation) was performed to provide novel mechanistic insights into the lipidome during stress. As expected, an increase in TAGs and an overall decrease in polar lipids were observed. However, while most membrane lipid classes (phosphoglycerolipids and glycolipids) were found to decrease, the non-nitrogen containing phosphatidylglycerol levels increased considerably in both algae from initially low levels. Of particular significance, it was observed that the acyl composition of TAGs in Nannochloropsis sp. remain relatively constant, whereas Chlorella sp. showed greater variability following N-deprivation. In both algae the overall fatty acid profiles of the polar lipid classes were largely unaffected by N-deprivation, suggesting a specific FA profile for each compartment is maintained to enable continued function despite considerable reductions in the amount of these lipids. The changes observed in the overall fatty acid profile were due primarily to the decrease in proportion of polar lipids to TAGs. This study provides the most detailed lipidomic information on two different microalgae with utility in biodiesel production and nutraceutical industries and proposes the mechanisms for this rearrangement. This research also highlights the usefulness of the latest MS-based approaches for microalgae lipid research.