Phosphorylation in vivo of the P light chain of myosin in rabbit fast and slow skeletal muscles.

The P light chain of myosin is partially phosphorylated in resting slow and fast twitch skeletal muscles of the rabbit in vivo. The extent of P light-chain phosphorylation increases in both muscles on stimulation. Rabbit slow-twitch muscles contain two forms of the P light chain that migrate with the same electrophoretic mobilities as the two forms of P light chain in rabbit ventricular muscle. The rate of phosphorylation of the P light chain in slow-twitch muscle is slower than its rate of phosphorylation in fast-twitch muscles during tetanus. The rate of P light-chain dephosphorylation is slow after tetanic contraction of fast-twitch muscles in vivo. The time course of dephosphorylation does not correlate with the decline of post-tetanic potentiation of peak twitch tension in rabbit fast-twitch muscles. The frequency of stimulation is an important factor in determining the extent of P light-chain phosphorylation in fast- and slow-twitch muscles.     

Mechanisms underlying the asynchronous replacement of myosin light chain isoforms during stimulation-induced fibre-type transformation of skeletal muscle

During the fibre-type transformation induced by chronic electrical stimulation of rabbit fast-twitch muscle, replacement of the fast forms of the two classes of myosin light chain by their slow isoforms occurs asynchronously. Studies of total cellular myosin light chains and of the slow-to-fast transition now justify the conclusion that the asynchrony is due to switching between the expression of fast and slow genes for the two light chain classes at sequential stages of the transformation process.     

Changes in myosin heavy chain isoforms during chronic low-frequency stimulation of rat fast hindlimb muscles. A single-fiber study

Fast-twitch rat muscles contain three fast myosin heavy chains (HC) which can be separated by density gradient gel electrophoresis. Their mobility increases in the order of HCIIa less than HCIId less than HCIIb. In contrast to the rabbit, where chronic low-frequency nerve stimulation induces a fast-to-slow conversion, stimulation for up to 56 days does not lead to appreciable increases in the relative concentration of the slow myosin heavy chain HCI in rat fast-twitch muscles. However, chronic stimulation of rat fast-twitch muscle does evoke a rearrangement of the fast myosin heavy chain isoform pattern with a progressive decrease in HCIIb and progressive increases in HCIIa and HCIId. As judged from the time course and extent of these transitions, it appears that HCIId is an intermediate form between HCIIb and HCIIa. Single-fiber analyses of normal muscles make it possible to assign these heavy chain isoforms to histochemically defined fiber types IIB, IID, and IIA. The stimulation-induced fiber transformations produce numerous hybrid fibers displaying more than one myosin heavy chain isoform. Some transforming fibers contain up to four different myosin heavy chain isoforms.     

Phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle myosin in situ

Myosin light chain (P light chain) is phosphorylated by Ca2+ X calmodulin-dependent myosin light chain kinase. Based on studies with rat skeletal muscles, it has been shown that P light chain phosphorylation correlated to the extent of potentiation of isometric twitch tension. It is not clear whether this correlation exists in rabbit skeletal muscle, which has been the primary source of contractile proteins for biochemical studies. Therefore, phosphorylation of myosin P light chain in rabbit slow-twitch soleus and fast-twitch plantaris muscles in situ was examined. Electrical stimulation (5 Hz, 20 seconds) of plantaris muscle produced an increase in the phosphate content of P light chain from 0.17 to 0.45 mol phosphate/mol P light chain. This increase in phosphate content was accompanied by a 58% increase in maximal isometric twitch tension. Tetanic stimulation (100 Hz, 15 seconds) of rabbit soleus muscle resulted in only a small increase in P light chain phosphate content from 0.02 to 0.10 mol phosphate/mol P light chain, and posttetanic twitch tension did not increase significantly. The correlation between potentiated isometric twitch tension and P light chain phosphorylation in rabbit fast-twitch muscle is similar to that observed in rat skeletal muscle. These results were consistent with the hypothesis that phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle myosin, which results in an increase in actin-activated ATPase activity, may be related to isometric twitch potentiation.     

Chronic stimulation-induced effects point to a coordinated expression of carbonic anhydrase III and slow myosin heavy chain in skeletal muscle

Chronic low-frequency stimulation of rat fast-twitch muscle induces 3.7-fold elevations in cytochrome c oxidase activity, but remains without effect on carbonic anhydrase III (CAIII) mRNA and protein. This is in contrast with the situation in the rabbit where chronic stimulation elicits more than 10-fold elevations in CAIII activity and mRNA content which coincide with an enhanced expression of the slow myosin heavy chain (HCI). Since chronic stimulation of rat muscle does not enhance the expression of HCI, we conclude that CAIII is expressed in parallel with HCI and, therefore, is present only in type I and C fibers.     

A combined histochemical and immunohistochemical study on the dynamics of fast-to-slow fiber transformation in chronically stimulated rabbit muscle

Summary Chronically stimulated fast-twitch muscles of the rabbit were histochemically and immunohistochemically analyzed in serial cross sections (1) for percentages of fiber types, and (2) for the presence of myosin heavy chain isoforms during fast-to-slow transformation. By four weeks of stimulation the number of type-I fibers had increased more than fourfold, while only about 6% of the original IIB fibers remained. Type-IC and -IIC fibers transiently rose to 20% of the total fiber population. After 16 weeks, the number of type-I fibers had increased to 42%. With prolonged stimulation fewer fibers reacted with antibodies against embryonic and neonatal myosins and more with the antibody against slow myosin. The reaction for embryonic myosin was most often detected in the C fibers (IC, IIC). Immunohistochemical subtypes were observed for each fiber type in the stimulated muscles. The greatest number was seen in type-IIC fibers, which, in addition to their reaction for fast/neonatal and slow myosins, might also react with the antibodies against neonatal/embryonic and embryonic myosins. These findings indicated that the transforming fibers temporarily expressed myosin heavy chain isoforms normally not detectable in adult skeletal muscle. Myotubes reacted strongly with the antibodies against fast/neonatal and embryonic myosins, and some of them also with the antibody against slow myosin. Thus, it appears that under the influence of the low frequency stimulus pattern some of the newly formed myotubes developed into type-I fibers.     

Decrease in myosin light chain kinase activity of rabbit fast muscle by chronic stimulation

Analysis of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) activity in tibialis anterior muscles of the rabbit revealed that chronic stimulation at a frequency of 10 Hz for 24 h per day reduced the enzyme activity in a timedependent manner. Since fast twitch muscle contains significantly more myosin light chain kinase than slow twitch muscle, the observed reductions are consistent with the type of fast-to-slow transformation observed for other type-specific muscle characteristics. The present data also indicate that the stimulation-induced decrease in MLCK activity precedes the fast-to-slow conversion of the myosin molecule as judged by pyrophosphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.     

Molecular transformations in sarcoplasmic reticulum of fast-twitch muscle by electro-stimulation.

Chronic electro-stimulation of fast-twitch rabbit muscle with the frequency pattern received by a slow-twitch muscle induces a progressive transformation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. After 2 days stimulation activities of Ca2+-dependent ATPase and of Ca2+ transport begin to decrease, and are paralleled by a progressive decrease in Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+, Mg2+-dependent phosphoprotein formation, reduced rate of dephosphorylation and a rearrangement of the electrophoretic polypeptide and phosphoprotein patterns. These findings suggest a transformation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to resemble that of a slow-twitch muscle. This transformation is paralleled by increase in time-to-peak of twitch contraction and half relaxation time and occurs before conversion of the myosin light chain pattern is observed. The parallel time course of changes in contractile properties of stimulated muscle and the molecular and functional properties of the sarcoplasmic reticulum emphasizes the definitive role of the latter in determining the twitch characteristics of fast and slow twitch muscles.     

Polymorphism of myosin light chains. An electrophoretic and immunological study of rabbit skeletal-muscle myosins.

Antibodies specific for rabbit fast-twitch-muscle myosin LCIF light chain were purified by affinity chromatography and characterized by both non-competitive and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a gel-electrophoresis-derived assay (GEDELISA). The antibodies did not cross-react with myosin heavy chains, and were weakly cross-reactive with the LC2F [5,5'-dithio-(2-nitrobenzoic acid)-dissociated] light chain and with all classes of dissociated light chains (LC1Sa, LC1Sb and LC2S), as well as with the whole myosin, from hind-limb slow-twitch muscle. The immunoreactivity of myosins with a truly mixed light-chain pattern (e.g. vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius) correlated with percentage content of fast-twitch-muscle-type light chains. A more extensive immunoreactivity was observed with diaphragm and masseter myosins, which were also characterized, respectively, by a relative or absolute deficiency of LC1Sa light chain. Furthermore, it was found that the LC1Sb light chain of masseter myosin is antigenically different from its slow-twitch-muscle myosin analogue, and is immunologically related to the LC1F light chain. Rabbit masseter muscle from its metabolic and physiological properties and the content, activity and immunological properties of sarcoplasmic-reticulum adenosine triphosphatase, is classified as a red, predominantly fast-twitch, muscle. Therefore our results suggest that the two antigenically different iso-forms of LC1Sb light chain are associated with the myosins of fast-twitch red and slow-twitch red fibres respectively.     

Enhanced skeletal muscle contraction with myosin light chain phosphorylation by a calmodulin-sensing kinase

Repetitive low frequency stimulation results in potentiation of twitch force development in fast-twitch skeletal muscle due to myosin regulatory light chain (RLC) phosphorylation by Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase (skMLCK). We generated transgenic mice that express an skMLCK CaM biosensor in skeletal muscle to determine whether skMLCK or CaM is limiting to twitch force potentiation. Three transgenic mouse lines exhibited up to 22-fold increases in skMLCK protein expression in fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus muscle containing type IIa and IIb fibers, with comparable expressions in slow-twitch soleus muscle containing type I and IIa fibers. The high expressing lines showed a more rapid RLC phosphorylation and force potentiation in extensor digitorum longus muscle with low frequency electrical stimulation. Surprisingly, overexpression of skMLCK in soleus muscle did not recapitulate the fast-twitch potentiation response despite marked enhancement of both fast-twitch and slow-twitch RLC phosphorylation. Analysis of calmodulin binding to the biosensor showed a frequency-dependent activation to a maximal extent of 60%. Because skMLCK transgene expression is 22-fold greater than the wild-type kinase, skMLCK rather than calmodulin is normally limiting for RLC phosphorylation and twitch force potentiation. The kinase activation rate (10.6 s(-1)) was only 3.6-fold slower than the contraction rate, whereas the inactivation rate (2.8 s(-1)) was 12-fold slower than relaxation. The slower rate of kinase inactivation in vivo with repetitive contractions provides a biochemical memory via RLC phosphorylation. Importantly, RLC phosphorylation plays a prominent role in skeletal muscle force potentiation of fast-twitch type IIb but not type I or IIa fibers.     

Role of myosin light chain kinase in muscle contraction

In resting striated muscles of the rabbit muscle in vivo, the phosphorylatable light chain is partially phosphorylated. Tetanic stimulation increased the level of phosphorylation more rapidly in fast twitch than in slow twitch muscle. In both types of muscle the rate of dephosphorylation was relatively slow. In rabbit fast twitch muscles, phosphorylation levels persisted significantly above the resting value for some time after posttetanic potentiation had disappeared. The role of myosin light chain kinase in modulating contractile response in striated muscle is uncertain. In vertebrate smooth muscle the role of myosin phosphorylation appears to be different from that in striated muscle despite the general similarity of the actomyosin system in both tissues. Although phosphorylation in vitro increases the Mg2+ -ATPase of actomyosin, a number of features imply that a somewhat complex relationship exists between the level of phosphorylation and the actin activation of the Mg2+ -ATPase in vertebrate smooth muscle. Contrary to many earlier reports, preparations of smooth muscle actomyosin can be obtained with Mg2+ -ATPase activities comparable to those of actomyosin from skeletal muscle. Preliminary evidence is presented that suggests that phosphorylation changes the Ca2+ sensitivity of the Mg2+ -ATPase of smooth muscle actomyosin.     

Mammalian skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinases. A comparison by antiserum cross-reactivity

Purified myosin light chain kinases from skeletal muscle are reported to be significantly smaller (Mr = 75,000-90,000) than the kinases purified from smooth muscle (Mr = 130,000-155,000). It has been suggested that the smaller kinases from striated muscle are proteolytic fragments of a larger enzyme which is homologous, if not identical, to myosin light chain kinase from smooth muscle. Therefore, we have used an antiserum to rabbit skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase and Western blot analysis to compare the subunit molecular weight of the kinase in skeletal muscle extracts of several mammalian species. In rabbit skeletal muscle, the antiserum only recognized a polypeptide of Mr = 87,000, with no indication that this polypeptide was a proteolyzed fragment of a larger protein. The apparent molecular weights observed in different animal species were 75,000 (mouse), 83,000 (guinea pig), 82,000 (rat), 87,000 (rabbit), 100,000 (dog), and 108,000 (steer). The molecular weight of myosin light chain kinase was constant within an animal species, regardless of skeletal muscle fiber type. The antiserum inhibited the catalytic activity of skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase. Similar antibody dilution curves for inhibition of myosin light chain kinase activity in extracts were observed for all animal species (rabbit, rat, mouse, guinea pig, dog, cat, steer, and chicken) and different fibers (slow twitch oxidative, fast twitch oxidative glycolytic, and fast twitch glycolytic) tested. The antiserum did not inhibit the activity of rabbit smooth muscle myosin light chain kinase. These results suggest that there may be at least two classes of muscle myosin light chain kinase represented in skeletal and smooth muscles, respectively.     

Subunit composition of rodent isomyosins and their distribution in hindlimb skeletal muscles

Three adult skeletal muscle sarcomeric myosin heavy chain (MHC) genes have been identified in the rat, suggesting that the expressed native myosin isoforms can be differentiated, in part, on the basis of their MHC composition. This study was undertaken to ascertain whether the five major native isomyosins [3 fast (Fm1, Fm2, Fm3), 1 slow (Sm), and 1 intermediate (Im)], typically expressed in the spectrum of adult rat skeletal muscles comprising the hindlimb, could be further differentiated on the basis of their MHC profiles in addition to their light chain composition. Results show that in muscles comprised exclusively of fast-twitch glycolytic (FG) fibers and consisting of Fm1, Fm2, and Fm3, such as the tensor fasciae latae, only one MHC, designated as fast type IIb, could be resolved. In soleus muscle, comprised of both slow-twitch oxidative and fast-twitch oxidative-glycolytic fibers and expressing Sm and Im, two MHC bands were resolved and designated as slow/cardiac beta-MHC and fast type IIa MHC. In muscles expressing a mixture of all three fiber types and a full complement of isomyosins, as seen in the plantaris, the MHC could be resolved into three bands. Light chain profiles were characterized for each muscle type, as well as for the purified isomyosins. These data suggest that Im (IIa) consists of a mixture of fast and slow light chains, whereas Fm (IIb) and Sm (beta) isoforms consist solely of fast- and slow-type light chains, respectively. Polypeptide mapping of denatured myosin extracted from muscles expressing contrasting isoform phenotypes suggests differences in the MHC primary structure between slow, intermediate, and fast myosin isotypes. These findings demonstrate that 1) Fm, Im, and Sm isoforms are differentiated on the bases of both their heavy and light chain components and 2) each isomyosin is distributed in a characteristic fashion among rat hindlimb skeletal muscles. Furthermore, these data suggest that the ratio of isomyosins in a given muscle or muscle region is of physiological importance to the function of that muscle during muscular activity.     

Changes in transcriptional activity of chronically stimulated fast twitch muscle

mRNAs extracted from rabbit soleus, normal and 28-day, indirectly stimulated tibialis anterior muscles were translated in an in vitro system. Analysis for translation products by 2-dimensional electrophoresis showed fast myosin light chains in tibialis anterior, and slow myosin light chains in soleus muscle. The stoichiometry of the in vitro translated light chain varies from that seen in normal fast and slow twitch muscles. The stimulated muscle contained mRNA coding, both for fast and slow myosin light chains, although the pattern of slow myosin light chains appears not to be complete at this point of time of the transformation process.     

Myosin subunit composition in human developing muscle.

Previous pyrophosphate-gel studies have reported the existence of embryonic neonatal myosin isoenzymes in human developing muscle. The present investigation was undertaken to characterize their subunit composition more precisely. Two immature muscle myosins are contrasted with adult myosin: neonatal myosin and foetal myosin. The neonatal form of myosin is weakly cross-reactive with rabbit slow myosin and contains only fast-type light chains (LC), LC1F and LC2F. The associated heavy chains consist of a single electrophoretic component that reacts exclusively with antibodies against human foetal myosin and has a mobility and peptide pattern distinct from that of adult fast and slow heavy chains. Foetal myosin is distinguished by the presence of low amounts of a heavy chain immunologically cross-reactive with the adult slow form and of two additional light-chain components: a LC2S light chain and a foetal-specific light chain (LCemb.). The foetal-specific light chain, as shown by one-dimensional-peptide-map analysis, is structurally unrelated to both LC1S and LC1F light chains of human adult myosin. We conclude from these results that the ontogenesis of human muscle myosin shares certain common features with that observed in other species, except for the persistence until birth of a foetal form of heavy chain (HCemb.).     

Three fast myosin heavy chains in adult rat skeletal muscle

A new fast myosin heavy chain isoform was electrophoretically detected in adult rat skeletal muscles. It was present at high levels in diaphragm and, therefore, designated as MHCIId. Appreciable amounts of MHCIId were detected in tongue musculature, the extraocular muscles, and in the deep red portions of various fast muscles. Its concentration in fast-twitch muscle was greatly increased by chronic stimulation.     

Immunocytochemical localization of aldolase in normal, denervated, and dystrophic chicken muscles

To investigate whether immunocytochemical localization of muscle-specific aldolase can be used for fiber phenotype determination, we produced specific antibodies against the enzyme and studied its distribution in adult chicken skeletal muscles by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. Monoclonal antibodies against the myosin heavy chains of fast-twitch (MF-14) and slow-tonic (ALD-58) muscle fibers were also used to correlate aldolase levels with the fiber phenotype. The goat anti-aldolase antibody was found to be specific for the A form of aldolase, as evidenced by sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis, immunotitration experiments, and immunoblot analysis. The antibody reacted strongly with the fast-twitch myofibers of normal pectoralis and posterior latissimus dorsi muscles; the phenotype of these muscle fibers was confirmed by a positive immunofluorescent reaction after incubation with MF-14 antibody. By contrast, the slow-tonic myofibers of normal anterior latissimus dorsi, which react positively with ALD-58 antibody, reacted weakly with anti-aldolase antibodies. In denervated chicken muscles, reaction to anti-aldolase antibodies was markedly reduced in fast-twitch fibers, although reaction to MF-14 was not diminished. By contrast, in dystrophic muscle, fast-twitch fibers showed reduced reactivity to anti-aldolase and marked to moderate reduction in MF-14 reactivity. Our results show that: (a) in normal muscles, reactivity to anti-aldolase matches the phenotype obtained by using anti-fast or anti-slow myosin heavy chain antibodies, and therefore can serve to identify mature fibers as fast or slow; and (b) in denervated or dystrophic muscles, the intracellular expressions of aldolase and fast-twitch myosin heavy chains are regulated independently.     

Resveratrol regulates muscle fiber type conversion via miR-22-3p and AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α pathway

This study investigated the effects of resveratrol and miR-22-3p on muscle fiber type conversion in mouse C2C12 myotubes. Here we showed that resveratrol significantly increased the protein level of slow myosin heavy chain (MyHC) and the activities of succinic dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase, as well as markedly decreased the protein level of fast MyHC and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase. Immunofluorescence staining showed that resveratrol remarkably upregulated the number of slow MyHC-positive myotubes and downregulated the number of fast MyHC-positive myotubes, suggesting that resveratrol promoted muscle fiber type conversion from fast-twitch to slow-twitch in C2C12 myotubes. We also showed that miR-22-3p had an opposite function on muscle fiber type conversion and resveratrol was able to repress the expression of miR-22-3p. Furthermore, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitor Compound C and miR-22-3p mimics could attenuate and eliminate muscle fiber type conversion from fast-twitch to slow-twitch cause by resveratrol, respectively. Together, we provided the first evidence that resveratrol promotes muscle fiber type conversion from fast-twitch to slow-twitch via miR-22-3p and AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α pathway in C2C12 myotubes.     

Changes in tropomyosin subunit pattern in chronic electrically stimulated rabbit fast muscles.

The tropomyosin subunit ratio of rabbit fast muscle (α:β = 80:20) changes to that characteristic of skeletal slow muscles (α:β = 55:45) on continuous (10 Hz) stimulation for 3 weeks. The altered myosin light chain pattern and histochemical ATPase stain also show clear changes of fast → slow transformation. However, the rate of changes in the light chain patterns of myosin are slower than those of tropomyosin subunits. These results do not support the previous finding (Amphlett et al., Nature $\text{257}$, 602, 1975) that the tropomyosin subunit pattern remains unaltered during transformation of skeletal muscles and the conclusion that the genetic expression of tropomyosin is regulated under separate control from other myofibrillar proteins. Rather, our results suggest that the polymorphic patterns of all myofibrillar proteins in skeletal muscles undergo changes in a temporal manner during skeletal muscle transformation.