The distribution, identification, and naming of the Mastomys natalensis species complex in southern Africa (Rodentia: Muridae)

Three hundred and forty seven rats belonging to the Mastomys natalensis complex (Smith, 1834) were live trapped from 60 localities in southern Africa. They were identified as species A, or B using either or both diploid chromosome number and haemoglobin electromorphs. These, and previously published data are presented to give a distribution of the species in southern Africa. It is suggested that workers may safely use the haemoglobin marker for identification purposes in this region as opposed to the more difficult chromosome marker. We suggest that species A can be referred to M. natalensis (Smith, 1834), and species B to M. coucha (Smith, 1836). We consider the two other oldest synonyms, M. caffer (Smith, 1834), and M. marikquensis (Smith, 1836).     

Differential gene expression analysis of ‘Granny Smith’ apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) during fruit skin coloration

‘Granny Smith’ apples growing under normal sunlight develop green skin, whereas the peel turns red due to anthocyanin accumulation after the removal of a bagging treatment. Two anthocyanins, Cyanidin 3-O-galactoside (cy3-gal) and Cyanidin 3-O-arabinoside (cy3-ara), were detected in the red ‘Granny Smith’ apple peels, and cy3-gal was determined to be chiefly responsible for the red color. The content of cy3-gal was more than 98% of the total anthocyanin in the red ‘Granny Smith’ peels. To better understand the molecular basis of anthocyanin biosynthesis in ‘Granny Smith’ apples, we performed a quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes (MdCHS, MdF3H, MdDFR, MdANS, MdUFGT, and MdMYB1). Our results indicate that the expression of these genes (except MdCHS) was associated with increased anthocyanin accumulation in the skin of ‘Granny Smith’ apples. Four selected genes obtained from the ‘Granny Smith’ skin cDNA library, phytoene synthase (PSY), WD40 repeat protein, polygalacturonase (PG), and galactosidase (GAL), were also confirmed by qRT-PCR. We found that these genes were differently expressed during ‘Granny Smith’ apple skin coloration, suggesting that they are directly or indirectly involved in pigment accumulation. In conclusion, anthocyanin biosynthesis in ‘Granny Smith’ apples is the result of interactions between multiple enzymes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway, and the coloring mechanism of ‘Granny Smith’ apples may be similar to that of red-skinned cultivars.     

A review of Mangocellus (Heteroptera: Miridae) with five new species from West Africa

Abstract. The isometopine genus, Magnocellus Smith is reviewed. Two species-groups are recognized and keys to the eleven included species are provided. Five new species are described: slaten (Ghana), confusus (Nigeria), tibialis (Nigeria and Ghana), deeming (Nigeria) and fulvus (Nigeria). Three species, ghanaiensis Smith, scutellaris Linnavuori and wacriensis Smith, are redescribed.     

Taxonomy of the Rhizopogon vinicolor species complex based on analysis of ITS sequences and microsatellite loci

We are re-addressing species concepts in the Rhizopogon vinicolor species complex (Boletales, Basidiomycota) using sequence data from the internal-transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal repeat, as well as genotypic data from five microsatellite loci. The R. vinicolor species complex by our definition includes, but is not limited to, collections referred to as R. vinicolor Smith, R. diabolicus Smith, R. ochraceisporus Smith, R. parvulus Smith or R. vesiculosus Smith. Holo- and/or paratype material for the named species is included. Analyses of both ITS sequences and microsatellite loci separate collections of the R. vinicolor species complex into two distinct clades or clusters, suggestive of two biological species that subsequently are referred to as R. vinicolor sensu Kretzer et al and R. vesiculosus sensu Kretzer et al. Choice of the latter names, as well as morphological characters, are discussed.     

中国细长蚁属系统分类研究(膜翅目,蚁科)

在中国记载细长蚁属Tetraponera F. Smith昆虫13种,其中在云南省描述5新种,报道中国1新纪录种.编制了工蚁的分种检索表.评论了该属中国种类的分类历史.13个已知种依次是红黑细长蚁T.rufonigra(Jerdon),凹唇细长蚁T.concava sp.nov.,宾氏细长蚁T.binghami(Forel),狭唇细长蚁T.attenuata F.Smith,显赫细长蚁T.notabilis Ward,光亮细长蚁T.nitida(F.Smith),隆背细长蚁T.convexa sp.nov.,榕细长蚁T.microcarpa Wu et Wang,叉唇细长蚁T.furcata sp.nov.,尖唇细长蚁T.protensa sp.nov.,飘细长蚁T.allaborans(Walker),无缘细长蚁T.amargina sp.nov,平静细长蚁T.modesta(F.Smith).显赫细长蚁T.notabilis Ward为中国新纪录种.     

Analysis of fluorogenic Smith degradation products of 7-(1,3-disulfonaphtyl)amino-disaccharides for linkage position analysis of carbohydrates

The linkage position of a glycosidic bond to the reducing-end residue of a pyridylamino (PA-) sugar can be determined sensitively by Smith degradation and HPLC [K. Omichi and S. Hase, (1994) J. Biochem. 115, 429-434]. With the aim of enhancing the sensitivity of this method of linkage position analysis to the fmol-level, use of the 7-(1,3-disulfonaphtyl)amino (DSNA-) group instead of the PA-group as a fluorescent tag was examined. Smith degradation of DSNA-disaccharides with a DSNA-hexose, DSNA-N-acetylglucosamine, or DSNA-N-acetylgalactosamine reducing-end residue was carried out. HPLC and FAB-MS of the fluorogenic Smith degradation products showed that the DSNA-group was stable under the Smith degradation reaction conditions, and that the reaction proceeded in a manner similar to that using PA-disaccharides to give the predicted products. Fluorogenic Smith degradation products specific to the glycosidic linkage position were well separated by reversed-phase HPLC, and were easily assignable by comparing the HPLC elution positions with those of standard compounds. The method was successfully applied to analyzing the structure of an N-linked sugar chain.     

八角属(八角科)三种植物之小记

根据对腊叶标本的研究,将少药八角Illicium oligandrum Merrill & Chun、I. parvifolium Merrill subsp. oligandrum(Merrill & Chun)Q. Lin作为小叶八角I. parvifolium Merrill的新异名,将苏门答腊八角I. sumatranum A. C. Smith作为里德利八角I. ridleyanum A. C. Smith的新异名,发现厚皮香八角I. ternstroemioides A. C. Smith在越南的新记录。     

重楼属的四个新异名

将小重楼Paris polyphylla Smith var．minora S．F．Wang、长药隔重楼P.polyhylla Smith var．pseudothibetica H．Li处理为金线重楼P.delavayi Franch．的异名;将广东重楼P.polyphylla Smith var．kwantungensis（R．H．Miau）S．C．Chen＆S．Y.Liang处理为多叶重楼P.polyphylla Smith的异名;将文县重楼P.wenxianensis Z．X．Peng＆R．N．Zhao处理为黑籽重楼P.thibetica Franch．的异名。     

Little change in the fir tree-line position on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau after 200 years of warming

? As one of the world's highest natural tree lines, the Smith fir (Abies georgei var. smithii) tree line on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau is expected to vary as a function of climate warming. However, the spatial patterns and dynamics of the Smith fir tree line are not yet well understood. ? Three rectangular plots (30 m × 150 m) were established in the natural alpine tree-line ecotone on two north-facing (Plot N1, 4390 m asl; Plot N2, 4380 m asl) and one east-facing (Plot E1, 4360 m asl) slope. Dendroecological methods were used to monitor the tree-line patterns and dynamics over a 50-yr interval. ? The three study plots showed a similar pattern of regeneration dynamics, characterized by increased recruitment after the 1950s and an abrupt increase in the 1970s. Smith fir recruitment was significantly positively correlated with both summer and winter temperatures. However, Smith fir tree lines do not show a significant upward movement, despite warming on the Tibetan Plateau. ? The warming in the past 200 yr is already having a significant impact on the population density of the trees, but not on the position of the Smith fir tree line.     

Micromorphological features of the seed surface of Schisandraceae and their systematic significance

Micromorphological features of the seed surface of the Schisandraceae are reported for the first time. One hundred and seventeen seed samples from 92 populations, representing 24 species, seven varieties and one form of the Schisandraceae, were examined and photographed under scanning electron microscope (SEM). Micromorphological features of seed surfaces of the Schisandraceae are little affected by the habitats in which plants grow, and are quite constant within species, therefore they can be used as reliable diagnostic characters to distinguish species. The following taxonomic treatments are not supported by micromorphological features observed: ( 1 ) To reduce Schisandra wilsoniana A. C. Smith to S. henryi Clarke; (2) To reduce S. neglecta A. C. Smith, S. arisanensis Hayata, S. viridis A. C. Smith, S. sphenanthena Rehd. & Wils., S. gracilis A. C. Smith, S. micrantha A. C. Smith and S. lancifolia var. polycarpa Z. He to S. elongata ( Bl. ) Baill.; (3) To reduce S. henryi var. longipes (Merr. & Chun) A. C. Smith, S. tomentella A. C. Smith and S. pubescens var. pubinervis (Rehd. & Wils.)A. C. Smith to S. pubescens Hemsl. & Wils.; (4) To reduce S. rubriflora(Franch.)Rehd. & Wils., S. flaccidiramosa C. R. Sun, S. incarnata Stapf, S. sphaerandra Stapf, S. sphaerandra f. pallida A. C. Smith and S. glaucescens Diels to S. grandiflora ( Wall. ) Hook. f. & Thoms.; (5) To reduce Schisandra wilsoniana to S. bicolor Cheng; (6) To reduce S. lancifolia var. polycarpa to S. neglecta; (7) To raise S. henryi var. longipes to S. longipes(Merr. & Chun)R. M. K. Saunders; (8) To reduce Kadsura polysperma Yang to K. heteroclita(Roxb. )Craib. The relationship between Schisan-dra Michx. and Kadsura Kaempf. ex Juss. revealed by the micromorphological features of seed surface is very similar to that revealed by pollen morphology, namely these two genera might have originated from a common ancestor and then evolved along two different routes. However the probability of a more complicated relationship between the two genera than we have known hitherto can not be excluded. The general evolutionary level of Kadsura seems to be higher than that of Schisandra. Therefore, the viewpoint that Kadsura is more primitive than Schisandra is not supported.     

Does frequency-dependent selection optimize fitness?

In evolutionary biology, the axiom that natural selection tends ideally to maximize inclusive fitness of the individual or some other suitable quantity is often advanced (Cody, 1974; Maynard Smith, 1978; Krebs & McCleery, 1984; Houston et al., 1988). Moreover, the evolutionists generally distinguish two situations (Dawkins, 1980; Maynard Smith, 1982): one in which fitness is independent of the frequency of the phenotypes present in the population (frequency-independent selection), and one in which it does depend on this frequency (frequency-dependent selection). This led some authors such as Parker (1984), and more recently Parker & Maynard Smith (1990), to consider "a 2-speed optimization": frequency-independent selection should lead to a "simple optimum" at the end of the selective process, since all the individuals should have the same strategy and the mean fitness of the population should be maximized; frequency-dependent selection, formulated in terms of the theory of games, should lead to a "competitive optimum" even though the "evolutionary stable strategy" (or "ESS"; Maynard Smith & Price, 1973) characterizing the equilibrium "is not the strategy that maximizes fitness in a population sense" (Parker & Maynard Smith, 1990: 30). Our aim in this short communication is to criticize the concept of "competitive optimum" by Parker & Maynard Smith, as well as the general ability of natural selection to "maximize fitness", even in "phenotypic models" (Lloyd, 1977). These models, devoid of genetic constraints since each strategist is assumed to reproduce its own kind, are especially suitable for examining the ideal effect of natural selection.     

Chemical Components in the Bark of Magnolia rostrata W. W. Smith

From the bark of Magnolia rostrata W. W. Smith (Magnoliaceae), the honokiol(1) mp. 87.5 ℃ and the magnolol (Ⅱ) mp. 102 ℃ was isolated. Moreover, it can be proved that the bark of Magnolia rostrata W. W. Smith contains β-eudesmol in the essential oil.     

Immunochemical studies on blood groups: The internal structure and immunological properties of water-soluble human blood group A substance studied by Smith degradation,liberation, and fractionation of oligosaccharides and reaction with lectins

Carbohydrate structures in the interior of a blood group A active substance (MSS) were exposed by one and by two Smith degradations. Reactivities of the original glycoprotein and its Smith degraded products with 13 different lectins and with anti-I Ma were studied by quantitative precipitin assay. MSS and its first Smith degraded product completely precipitated Ricinus communis hemagglutinin with five times less of the first Smith degraded glycoprotein being required for 50% precipitation. The second Smith degraded material precipitated only 90% of the lectin. MSS did not precipitate peanut lectin, whereas its first and second Smith degraded products completely precipitated the lectin. The first Smith degraded glycoprotein also reacted well with Wistaria floribunda, Maclura pomifera, Bauhinia purpurea alba, and Geodia lectins indicating that its carbohydrate moiety could contain dGalNAc, dGalβ1 → 3dGalNAc, dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAc, dGalβ1 → 3dGlcNAcβ1 → 3dGal and/or dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAcβ1 → 6dGal and/or dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAcβ1 → 6dGalNAc determinants at nonreducing ends. The second Smith degraded material precipitated well with Ricinus communis hemagglutinin, Arachis hypogaea, Geodia cydonium, Maclura pomifera, and Helix pomatia lectins showing that dGalNAc, dGalβ1 → 3dGalNAc, dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAc residues at terminal nonreducing ends could be involved. Monoclonal anti-I Ma (group 1) serum reacted strongly with the first Smith degraded product indicating large numbers of anti-I Ma determinants, dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAcβ1 → d 6dGal and/or dGalβ1 → 4dGlcNAcβ1 → 6dGalNAc at nonreducing ends. The comparable activities of the native and Smith degraded products with wheat germ lectin indicate capacity to react with DGlcNAc residues at nonreducing ends and/or at positions in the interior of the chain. The totality of lectin reactivities indicates heterogeneity of the carbohydrate side chains. Oligosaccharides with ³H at their reducing ends released from the protein core of the first and second Smith degraded products were obtained by treatment with 0.05 m NaOH and 1 M NaB³H₄ at 50 °C for 16 h (Carlson degradation). The liberated reduced oligosaccharides were fractionated by dialysis, followed by retardion, Bio-Gel P-2, P-4, and P-6 columns. They were further purified on charcoal-celite columns, and by preparative paper chromatography and high-pressure liquid chromatography. Their distribution by size was estimated by the yields on dialysis, Bio-Gel P-2, and Bio-Gel P-6 chromatography, and from the radioactivity of the reduced sugars. Of the oligosaccharide fractions from the first Smith degraded product, about 77% of the carbohydrate side chain residues contained from 1 to 6 sugars, 13% from 7 to perhaps 12 sugars, and 10% was nondialyzable (polysaccharides and glycopeptide fragments). Of the second Smith degraded product, approximately 82% of carbohydrate residues had from 1 to 6 sugars, 14% from 7 to perhaps 20 sugars and 4% was nondialyzable. The biological activity profile of the two Smith degraded products together with the size distributions of the oligosaccharides indicated that their carbohydrate side chains, comprised a heterogeneous population ranging in size from 1 to about 12 sugars. When most of these chains that are shorter than hexasaccharides are fully characterized it may be possible to reconstruct the overall structure of the carbohydrate moiety of the blood group substances and account for their biological activities.     

Significance of skin flavonoids for UV-B-protection in apple fruits

An attempt has been made to assess the UV-B-protective capacity of phenolic compounds accumulated in superficial structures of plants using apple fruit as a model. Two apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars (Braeburn and Granny Smith) differing in response to high fluxes of solar radiation were selected and exposed to increasing doses of UV-B radiation. The extent of UV-B-induced damage to photosystem II of apple skin correlated with its quercetin glycoside (but not anthocyanin) content. Granny Smith apples did not demonstrate a pronounced response to high sunlight in terms of the accumulation of phenolic substances in the skin and exhibited similar patterns of Fo, Fm, and Fv/Fm changes in the course of UV-B irradiation both on sun-exposed and shaded surfaces of a fruit. Unlike Granny Smith, Braeburn fruits were characterized by a significant accumulation of quercetin glycosides in sun-exposed skin, however, shaded skin contained these compounds in similar amounts to those in Granny Smith. Accordingly, photosystem II in sun-exposed skin of Braeburn apples was resistant to high doses of UV-B radiation (up to 97 kJ m-2), whereas the susceptibility of the photosynthetic apparatus in shaded skin of Braeburn to UV-B-induced damage was much higher and similar to that of both sun-exposed and shaded skin of Granny Smith fruits. Anthocyanins, at least in the amounts found in Braeburn, did not show an additional effect in UV-B protection.     

Distribution of capsular materials on the cell wall surface of strain Smith diffuse of Staphylococcus aureus.

The fine structure of the capsule of Staphylococcus aureus Smith diffuse was examined by the technique of freeze-substitution and immunoelectron microscopy. The cell surface was covered with a thick layer consisting of fine fibrous structures which were absent from an unencapsulated strain, Smith compact. Anti-teichoic acid antibody did not react with this surface layer but reacted with the surface of strain Smith compact. Anti-capsular antibody, made from the serum of a rabbit immunized with strain Smith diffuse and specific absorption with unencapsulated strain Wood 46, reacted with the fibrous layer of the Smith diffuse strain. Since the anti-teichoic acid antibody did not react with the encapsulated strain Smith diffuse, the capsular layer acts as a barrier to penetration of the anti-teichoic acid antibody through the capsular layer. A portion of a few cell surfaces of the encapsulated strain remained accessible to the anti-teichoic acid antibody. The capsular layer in this portion of the cell surface was thin, and this surface seemed to be a new cell wall surface created by the cell separation.     

Recent,small beginnings: genetic analysis suggests Catostomus rimiculus (Klamath smallscale sucker) in the Smith River,California, are introduced

Identification of introduced species can be important to understanding ecological systems and meeting conservation and management goals, but the process can be surprisingly challenging. The Klamath smallscale sucker Catostomus rimiculus seems likely to be native to the Smith River because the drainage separates two basins believed to be within the fish's native range, the Rogue and Klamath rivers. Further, C. rimiculus is broadly distributed in the Smith River, and the indigenous Dee-ni’ People of the Smith River have a unique word for sucker. Nonetheless, a historical survey of fishes that described C. rimiculus from the Rogue and Klamath rivers did not include C. rimiculus among the fishes of the Smith River. To determine whether the genetic structure of the Smith River C. rimiculus reflects expectations for a native sucker population, the authors of this study examined variation in microsatellite and mitochondrial genetic markers from the Smith River and surrounding drainages. The genetic analyses revealed a pattern consistent with extreme founder effects in Smith River C. rimiculus, as would be expected from a single introduction of six or fewer effective individuals. The sharing of a high-frequency haplotype between the Smith River and Klamath River that is not detected in the Rogue River suggests the Klamath River as the likely source for the introduction. The findings highlight that local-scale introductions can be easily overlooked because the newly established populations can appear to be parts of contiguous natural distributions.     

A nonparametric estimator of species overlap

For two communities, species overlap has been defined by Smith, Solow, and Preston (1996, Biometrics 52, 1472-1477) as the probability that a randomly selected species is present in both communities given that it is present in at least one community. Species overlap can thus be used to describe the similarity of two communities. In contrast with the parametric estimator of Smith et al., we propose a nonparametric maximum likelihood estimator (NPMLE). We prove that the NPMLE is consistent and asymptotically normally distributed and show that computation of the NPMLE and its standard error is straightforward. We also compare the NPMLE and the estimator of Smith et al. for a variety of situations.     

海南兰科植物新资料（Ⅲ）

报道了海南兰科植物6个新记录种：密花石豆兰Bulbophyllum odoratissimum（J．E．Smith）Lindl．、金唇兰Chrysoglossum ornatum B1．、勐海隔距兰Cleisostoma menghaiense Z．H．Tsi、无叶美冠兰Eulophia zollingeri（Rchb．f）J．J．Smith、心叶球柄兰Mischobulbum cordifolium（Hook．f）Schltr．及台湾白点兰Thrixspermum formosanum（Hayata）Schltr．。凭证标本保存于中国科学院植物研究所国家植物标本馆（PE）。     

ESS equations sometimes do not specify an ESS

The equations used to find an evolutionarily stable strategy in the basic game theory model (Maynard Smith, 1974, 1982; Maynard Smith & Price, 1973), and in sexual conflict models (Maynard Smith, 1977; Parker, 1979) do not, in fact, specify an ESS when the expected number of contests entered is not the same for each strategy. This means that the conclusions of many game theory models may be incorrect. This is particularly likely to be true when the mean durations of contests for different strategies are not the same, or when the probability that an individual enters a contest is not the same for all strategies. New ESS equations are developed which incorporate the expected number of contests entered.