Single Cell Electroporation in vivo within the Intact Developing Brain

Single-cell electroporation (SCE) is a specialized technique allowing the delivery of DNA or other macromolecules into individual cells within intact tissue, including in vivo preparations. The distinct advantage of this technique is that experimental manipulations may be performed on individual cells while leaving the surrounding tissue unaltered, thereby distinguishing cell-autonomous effects from those resulting from global treatments. When combined with advanced in vivo imaging techniques, SCE of fluorescent markers permits direct visualization of cellular morphology, cell growth, and intracellular events over timescales ranging from seconds to days. While this technique is used in a variety of in vivo and ex vivo preparations, we have optimized this technique for use in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. In this video article, we detail the procedure for SCE of a fluorescent dye or plasmid DNA into neurons within the intact brain of the albino Xenopus tadpole. We also discuss methods to optimize yield, and show examples of live two-photon fluorescence imaging of neurons fluorescently labeled by SCE.Download video file.^{(84M, flv)}     

Freezing,Thawing, and Packaging Cells for Transport

Cultured mammalian cells are used extensively in cell biology studies. It requires a number of special skills in order to be able to preserve the structure, function, behavior, and biology of the cells in culture. This video describes the basic skills required to freeze and store cells and how to recover frozen stocks. Download video file.^{(82M, mp4)}     

Method for Whole Mount Antibody Staining in Chick

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying antibody expression in developing brain, neural tube and somite. This video demonstrates the different steps in whole-mount antibody staining using HRP conjugated secondary antibodies; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, endogenous peroxidase is inactivated; The embryo is then exposed to primary antibody. After several washes, the embryo is incubated with secondary antibody conjugated to HRP. Peroxidase activity is revealed using reaction with diaminobenzidine substrate. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for photography and sectioning. The advantage of this method over the use of fluorescent antibodies is that embryos can be processed for wax sectioning, thus enabling the study of antigen sites in cross section. This method was originally introduced by Jane Dodd and Tom Jessell ¹.Open in a separate windowClick here to view.^{(64M, flv)}     

The Preparation of Primary Hematopoietic Cell Cultures From Murine Bone Marrow for Electroporation

It is becoming increasingly apparent that electroporation is the most effective way to introduce plasmid DNA or siRNA into primary cells. The Gene Pulser MXcell electroporation system and Gene Pulser electroporation buffer were specifically developed to transfect nucleic acids into mammalian cells and difficult-to-transfect cells, such as primary and stem cells.This video demonstrates how to establish primary hematopoietic cell cultures from murine bone marrow, and then prepare them for electroporation in the MXcell system. We begin by isolating femur and tibia. Bone marrow from both femur and tibia are then harvested and cultures are established. Cultured bone marrow cells are then transfected and analyzed.Download video file.^{(51M, flv)}     

In vitro Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem (mES) Cells Using the Hanging Drop Method

Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, This promising of science is leading scientists to investigate the possibility of cell-based therapies to treat disease. When culture in suspension without antidifferentiation factors, embryonic stem cells spontaneously differentiate and form three-dimensional multicellular aggregates. These cell aggregates are called embryoid bodies(EB). Hanging drop culture is a widely used EB formation induction method. The rounded bottom of hanging drop allows the aggregation of ES cells which can provide mES cells a good environment for forming EBs. The number of ES cells aggregatied in a hanging drop can be controlled by varying the number of cells in the initial cell suspension to be hung as a drop from the lid of Petri dish. Using this method we can reproducibly form homogeneous EBs from a predetermined number of ES cells. Download video file.^{(78M, mp4)}     

Trypsinizing and Subculturing Mammalian Cells

As cells reach confluency, they must be subcultured or passaged. Failure to subculture confluent cells results in reduced mitotic index and eventually in cell death. The first step in subculturing is to detach cells from the surface of the primary culture vessel by trypsinization or mechanical means. The resultant cell suspension is then subdivided, or reseeded, into fresh cultures. Secondary cultures are checked for growth and fed periodically, and may be subsequently subcultured to produce tertiary cultures. The time between passaging of cells varies with the cell line and depends on the growth rate.Download video file.^{(61M, mov)}     

Culture of myeloid dendritic cells from bone marrow precursors

Myeloid dendritic cells (DCs) are frequently used to study the interactions between innate and adaptive immune mechanisms and the early response to infection. Because these are the most potent antigen presenting cells, DCs are being increasingly used as a vaccine vector to study the induction of antigen-specific immune responses. In this video, we demonstrate the procedure for harvesting tibias and femurs from a donor mouse, processing the bone marrow and differentiating DCs in vitro. The properties of DCs change following stimulation: immature dendritic cells are potent phagocytes, whereas mature DCs are capable of antigen presentation and interaction with CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. This change in functional activity corresponds with the upregulation of cell surface markers and cytokine production. Many agents can be used to mature DCs, including cytokines and toll-like receptor ligands. In this video, we demonstrate flow cytometric comparisons of expression of two co-stimulatory molecules, CD86 and CD40, and the cytokine, IL-12, following overnight stimulation with CpG or mock treatment. After differentiation, DCs can be further manipulated for use as a vaccine vector or to generate antigen-specific immune responses by in vitro pulsing using peptides or proteins, or transduced using recombinant viral vectors. Download video file.^{(65M, mp4)}     

Major Components of the Light Microscope

The light microscope is a basic tool for the cell biologist, who should have a thorough understanding of how it works, how it should be aligned for different applications, and how it should be maintained as required to obtain maximum image-forming capacity and resolution. The components of the microscope are described in detail here.Download video file.^{(89M, mp4)}     

Using Laser Tweezers For Manipulating Isolated Neurons In Vitro

In this paper and video, we describe the protocols used in our laboratory to study the targeting preferences of regenerating cell processes of adult retinal neurons in vitro. Procedures for preparing retinal cell cultures start with the dissection, digestion and trituration of the retina, and end with the plating of isolated retinal cells on dishes made especially for use with laser tweezers. These dishes are divided into a cell adhesive half and a cell repellant half. The cell adhesive side is coated with a layer of Sal-1 antibodies, which provide a substrate upon which our cells grow. Other adhesive substrates could be used for other cell types. The cell repellant side is coated with a thin layer of poly-HEMA. The cells plated on the poly-HEMA side of the dish are trapped with the laser tweezers, transported and then placed adjacent to a cell on the Sal-1 side to create a pair. Formation of cell groups of any size should be possible with this technique. "Laser-tweezers-controlled micromanipulation" means that the investigator can choose which cells to move, and the desired distance between the cells can be standardized. Because the laser beam goes through transparent surfaces of the culture dish, cell selection and placement are done in an enclosed, sterile environment. Cells can be monitored by video time-lapse and used with any cell biological technique required. This technique may help investigations of cell-cell interactions.Open in a separate windowClick here to view.^{(66M, flv)}     

Neutrophil Isolation Protocol

Neutrophil polymorphonuclear granulocytes (PMN) are the most abundant leukocytes in humans and among the first cells to arrive on the site of inflammatory immune response. Due to their key role in inflammation, neutrophil functions such as locomotion, cytokine production, phagocytosis, and tumor cell combat are extensively studied. To characterize the specific functions of neutrophils, a clean, fast, and reliable method of separating them from other blood cells is desirable for in vitro studies, especially since neutrophils are short-lived and should be used within 2-4 hours of collection. Here, we demonstrate a standard density gradient separation method to isolate human neutrophils from whole blood using commercially available separation media that is a mixture of sodium metrizoate and Dextran 500. The procedure consists of layering whole blood over the density gradient medium, centrifugation, separation of neutrophil layer, and lysis of residual erythrocytes. Cells are then washed, counted, and resuspended in buffer to desired concentration. When performed correctly, this method has been shown to yield samples of >95% neutrophils with >95% viability.Download video file.^{(76M, mp4)}     

Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Cells for Treatment of Hindlimb Ischemia

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) results from narrowing of the peripheral arteries that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the legs and feet, This pathology causes symptoms such as intermittent claudication (pain with walking), painful ischemic ulcerations, or even limb-threatening gangrene. It is generally believed that the vascular endothelium, a monolayer of endothelial cells that invests the luminal surface of all blood and lymphatic vessels, plays a dominant role in vascular homeostasis and vascular regeneration. As a result, stem cell-based regeneration of the endothelium may be a promising approach for treating PAD.In this video, we demonstrate the transplantation of embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived endothelial cells for treatment of unilateral hindimb ischemia as a model of PAD, followed by non-invasive tracking of cell homing and survival by bioluminescence imaging. The specific materials and procedures for cell delivery and imaging will be described. This protocol follows another publication in describing the induction of hindlimb ischemia by Niiyama et al.¹Download video file.^{(55M, flv)}     

Whole-cell Recordings of Light Evoked Excitatory Synaptic Currents in the Retinal Slice

We use the whole-cell patch clamp technique to study the synaptic circuitry that underlies visual information processing in the retina. In this video, we will guide you through the process of performing whole-cell recordings of light evoked currents of individual cells in the retinal slice preparation. We use the aquatic tiger salamander as an animal model. We begin by describing the dissection of the eye and show how slices are mounted for electrophysiological recordings. Once the slice is placed in the recording chamber, we demonstrate how to perform whole-cell voltage clamp recordings. We then project visual stimuli onto the photoreceptors in the slice to elicit light-evoked current responses. During the recording we perfuse the slice with pharmacological agents, whereby an 8-channel perfusion system allows us to quickly switch between different agents. The retinal slice preparation is widely used for patch clamp recordings in the retina, in particular to study amacrine or bipolar cells, which are not accessible in a whole-mount preparation.Download video file.^{(217M, mp4)}     

Generation of Bone Marrow Derived Murine Dendritic Cells for Use in 2-photon Imaging

Several methods for the preparation of murine dendritic cells can be found in the literature. Here, we present a method that produces greater than 85% CD11c high dendritic cells in culture that home to the draining lymph node after subcutaneous injection and present antigen to antigen specific T cells (see video). Additionally, we use Essen Instruments Incucyte to track dendritic cell maturation, where, at day 10, the morphology of the cultured cells is typical of a mature dendritic cell and <85% of cells are CD11chigh. The study of antigen presentation in peripheral lymph nodes by 2-photon imaging revealed that there are three distinct phases of dendritic cell and T cell interaction^{1, 2}. Phase I consists of brief serial contacts between highly motile antigen specific T cells and antigen carrying dendritic cells^{1, 2}. Phase two is marked by prolonged contacts between antigen-specific T cell and antigen bearing dendritic cells^{1, 2}. Finally, phase III is characterized by T cells detaching from dendritic cells, regaining motility and beginning to divide^{1, 2}. This is one example of the type of antigen-specific interactions that can be analyzed by two-photon imaging of antigen-loaded cell tracker dye-labeled dendritic cells.Download video file.^{(152M, mp4)}     

Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy

Phase-contrast microscopy is often used to produce contrast for transparent, non light-absorbing, biological specimens. The technique was discovered by Zernike, in 1942, who received the Nobel prize for his achievement. DIC microscopy, introduced in the late 1960s, has been popular in biomedical research because it highlights edges of specimen structural detail, provides high-resolution optical sections of thick specimens including tissue cells, eggs, and embryos and does not suffer from the phase halos typical of phase-contrast images. This protocol highlights the principles and practical applications of these microscopy techniques.Download video file.^{(180M, mov)}     

Ex vivo Expansion of Tumor-reactive T Cells by Means of Bryostatin 1/Ionomycin and the Common Gamma Chain Cytokines Formulation

It was reported that breast cancer patients have pre-existing immune responses against their tumors^1,2. However, such immune responses fail to provide complete protection against the development or recurrence of breast cancer. To overcome this problem by increasing the frequency of tumor-reactive T cells, adoptive immunotherapy has been employed. A variety of protocols have been used for the expansion of tumor-specific T cells. These protocols, however, are restricted to the use of tumor antigens ex vivo for the activation of antigen-specific T cells. Very recently, common gamma chain cytokines such as IL-2, IL-7, IL-15, and IL-21 have been used alone or in combination for the enhancement of anti-tumor immune responses³. However, it is not clear what formulation would work best for the expansion of tumor-reactive T cells. Here we present a protocol for the selective activation and expansion of tumor-reactive T cells from the FVBN202 transgenic mouse model of HER-2/neu positive breast carcinoma for use in adoptive T cell therapy of breast cancer. The protocol includes activation of T cells with bryostatin-1/ionomycin (B/I) and IL-2 in the absence of tumor antigens for 16 hours. B/I activation mimics intracellular signals that result in T cell activation by increasing protein kinase C activity and intracellular calcium, respectively⁴. This protocol specifically activates tumor-specific T cells while killing irrelevant T cells. The B/I-activated T cells are cultured with IL-7 and IL-15 for 24 hours and then pulsed with IL-2. After 24 hours, T cells are washed, split, and cultured with IL-7 + IL-15 for additional 4 days. Tumor-specificity and anti-tumor efficacy of the ex vivo expanded T cells is determined.Download video file.^{(45M, mov)}     

Isolation and Culture of Post-Natal Mouse Cerebellar Granule Neuron Progenitor Cells and Neurons

The cerebellar cortex is a well described structure that provides unique opportunities for studying neuronal properties and development^1,2. Of the cerebellar neuronal types (granule cells, Purkinje cells and inhibitory interneurons), granule neurons are by far the most numerous and are the most abundant type of neurons in the mammalian brain. In rodents, cerebellar granule neurons are generated during the first two post-natal weeks from progenitor cells in the outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex, the external granule layer (EGL). The protocol presented here describes techniques to enrich and culture granule neurons and their progenitor cells from post-natal mouse cerebellum. We will describe procedures to obtain cultures of increasing purity^3,4, which can be used to study the differentiation of proliferating progenitor cells into granule neurons^5,6. Once the progenitor cells differentiate, the cultures also provide a homogenous population of granule neurons for experimental manipulation and characterization of phenomena such as synaptogenesis, glutamate receptor function⁷, interaction with other purified cerebellar cells^8,9 or cell death⁷.Download video file.^{(101M, flv)}     

In vitro Labeling of Human Embryonic Stem Cells for Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Human embryonic stem cells (hESC) have demonstrated the ability to restore the injured myocardium. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has emerged as one of the predominant imaging modalities to assess the restoration of the injured myocardium. Furthermore, ex-vivo labeling agents, such as iron-oxide nanoparticles, have been employed to track and localize the transplanted stem cells. However, this method does not monitor a fundamental cellular biology property regarding the viability of transplanted cells. It has been known that manganese chloride (MnCl₂) enters the cells via voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels when the cells are biologically active, and accumulates intracellularly to generate T¹ shortening effect. Therefore, we suggest that manganese-guided MRI can be useful to monitor cell viability after the transplantation of hESC into the myocardium.In this video, we will show how to label hESC with MnCl₂ and how those cells can be clearly seen by using MRI in vitro. At the same time, biological activity of Ca²⁺-channels will be modulated utilizing both Ca²⁺-channel agonist and antagonist to evaluate concomitant signal changes.Download video file.^{(69M, mov)}     

Rapid Homogeneous Detection of Biological Assays Using Magnetic Modulation Biosensing System

A magnetic modulation biosensing system (MMB) [1,2] rapidly and homogeneously detected biological targets at low concentrations without any washing or separation step. When the IL-8 target was present, a ''sandwich''-based assay attached magnetic beads with IL-8 capture antibody to streptavidin coupled fluorescent protein via the IL-8 target and a biotinylated IL-8 antibody. The magnetic beads are maneuvered into oscillatory motion by applying an alternating magnetic field gradient through two electromagnetic poles. The fluorescent proteins, which are attached to the magnetic beads are condensed into the detection area and their movement in and out of an orthogonal laser beam produces a periodic fluorescent signal that is demodulated using synchronous detection. The magnetic modulation biosensing system was previously used to detect the coding sequences of the non-structural Ibaraki virus protein 3 (NS3) complementary DNA (cDNA) [2]. The techniques that are demonstrated in this work for external manipulation and condensation of particles may be used for other applications, e.g. delivery of magnetically-coupled drugs in-vivo or enhancing the contrast for in-vivo imaging applications.Download video file.^{(80M, mp4)}     

Counting and Determining the Viability of Cultured Cells

Determining the number of cells in culture is important in standardization of culture conditions and in performing accurate quantitation experiments. A hemacytometer is a thick glass slide with a central area designed as a counting chamber. Cell suspension is applied to a defined area and counted so cell density can be calculated. Download video file.^{(62M, mov)}     

Imaging Effector Memory T cells in the Ear After Induction of Adoptive DTH

Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) is an immune reaction in which the main players are CCR7^- effector / memory T lymphocytes. Here, we demonstrate a method for inducing and recording the progress of a DTH reaction in the rat ear. This is followed by a demonstration of the preparation of rat ear tissue for two-photon imaging of the CCR7^- effector / memory T cell response.An adoptive DTH is induced by the intraperitoneal injection of GFP-labeled Ova-specific CCR7^- effector / memory T cell line (Beeton, C J. Visualized Experiments, Issue 8). Cells are then allowed to equilibrate in the rat for 48 hours before challenge by injecting one ear with saline (control ear) and the other with a 1:1 mix of Ova and Ova conjugated to Texas-Red (Ova-TR) to allow visualization of resident antigen-presenting cells.We describe a method of tissue preparation useful for imaging the motility of cells within the deep dermal layer during an immune response, in conjunction with visualization of collagen fibers by second harmonic generation. Ear tissue is cut into 5 x 5 mm squares (slightly larger is better) and mounted onto plastic cover slips using Vetbond™, which are then secured using silicone grease in an imaging chamber and superfused by oxygen-bubbled tissue culture medium at 37°C.Download video file.^{(112M, mp4)}