The role of quorum sensing signalling in EPS production and the assembly of a sludge community into aerobic granules

Quorum sensing (QS) signalling has been extensively studied in single species populations. However, the ecological role of QS in complex, multi-species communities, particularly in the context of community assembly, has neither been experimentally explored nor theoretically addressed. Here, we performed a long-term bioreactor ecology study to address the links between QS, organization and composition of complex microbial communities. The conversion of floccular biomass to highly structured granules was found to be non-random, but strongly and positively correlated with N-acyl-homoserine-lactone (AHL)-mediated QS. Specific AHLs were elevated up to 100-fold and were strongly associated with the initiation of granulation. Similarly, the levels of particular AHLs decreased markedly during the granular disintegration phase. Metadata analysis indicated that granulation was accompanied by changes in extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) production and AHL add-back studies also resulted in increased EPS synthesis. In contrast to the commonly reported nanomolar to micromolar signal concentrations in pure culture laboratory systems, QS signalling in the granulation ecosystem occurred at picomolar to nanomolar concentrations of AHLs. Given that low concentrations of AHLs quantified in this study were sufficient to activate AHL bioreporters in situ in complex granular communities, AHL mediated QS may be a common feature in many natural and engineered ecosystems, where it coordinates community behaviour.     

Production of cell–cell signalling molecules by bacteria isolated from human chronic wounds

Aim: To (i) identify chronic wound bacteria and to test their ability to produce acyl‐homoserine‐lactones (AHLs) and autoinducer‐2 (AI‐2) cell–cell signalling molecules and (ii) determine whether chronic wound debridement samples might contain these molecules. Methods and Results: Partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed the identity of 46 chronic wound strains belonging to nine genera. Using bio‐reporter assays, 69·6% of the chronic wound strains were inferred to produce AI‐2, while 19·6% were inferred to produce AHL molecules. At least one strain from every genus, except those belonging to the genera Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas, were indicated to produce AI‐2. Production of AI‐2 in batch cultures was growth‐phase dependent. Cross‐feeding assays demonstrated that AHLs were produced by Acinetobacter spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens. Independent from studies of the bacterial species isolated from wounds, AHL and/or AI‐2 signalling molecules were detected in 21 of 30 debridement samples of unknown microbial composition. Conclusion: Chronic wound bacteria produce cell–cell signalling molecules. Based on our findings, we hypothesize that resident species generally produce AI‐2 molecules, and aggressive transient species associated with chronic wounds typically produce AHLs. Both these classes of cell–cell signals are indicated to be present in human chronic wounds. Significance and Impact of the Study: Interbacterial cell–cell signalling may be an important factor influencing wound development and if this is the case, the presence of AHLs and AI‐2 could be used as a predictor of wound severity. Manipulation of cell–cell signalling may provide a novel strategy for improving wound healing.     

Cross-kingdom signalling: exploitation of bacterial quorum sensing molecules by the green seaweed Ulva

The green seaweed Ulva has been shown to detect signal molecules produced by bacteria. Biofilms that release N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) attract zoospores--the motile reproductive stages of Ulva. The evidence for AHL involvement is based on several independent lines of evidence, including the observation that zoospores are attracted to wild-type bacteria that produce AHLs but are not attracted to mutants that do not produce signal molecules. Synthetic AHL also attracts zoospores and the attraction is lost in the presence of autoinducer inactivation (AiiA) protein. The mechanism of attraction is not chemotactic but involves chemokinesis. When zoospores detect AHLs, the swimming rate is reduced and this results in accumulation of cells at the source of the AHL. It has been demonstrated that the detection of AHLs results in calcium influx into the zoospore. This is the first example of a calcium signalling event in a eukaryote in response to bacterial quorum sensing molecules. The role of AHLs in the ecology of Ulva is discussed. It is probable that AHLs act as cues for the settlement of zoospores, rather than being directly involved as a signalling mechanism.     

Detection of quorum-sensing N-acyl homoserine lactone signal molecules by bacterial biosensors

Many Gram-negative bacteria use N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) as quorum-sensing (QS) signal molecules. AHL QS has been the subject of extensive investigation in the last decade and has become a paradigm for bacterial intercellular signaling. Research in AHL QS has been considerably aided by simple methods devised to detect AHLs using bacterial biosensors that phenotypically respond when exposed to exogenous AHLs. This article reviews and discusses the currently available bacterial biosensors which can be used in detecting and studying the different AHLs.     

Quorum quenching activity in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120: identification of AiiC, a novel AHL-acylase

Many bacteria use quorum sensing (QS) to coordinate responses to environmental changes. In Gram-negative bacteria, the most extensively studied QS systems rely on the use of N -acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) signal molecules. Some bacteria produce enzymes that are able to inactivate AHL signals produced by other bacteria and hence interfere with QS-mediated processes via a phenomenon known as quorum quenching. Acylase-type AHL degradation activity has been found in the biomass of the filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena ( Nostoc ) sp. PCC 7120, being absent from the culture media. The gene all3924 has been identified and cloned whose product exhibits homology to the acylase QuiP of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, demonstrating that it is at least partially responsible for the AHL-acylase activity. The recombinant enzyme, which was named auto-inducer inhibitor from Cyanobacteria (AiiC), shows broad acyl-chain length specificity. Because the presence of AHLs in the biomass of nitrogen-fixing cultures of Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 has been described recently, AiiC could represent a self-modulatory system to control the response to its own QS signals but could also be involved in the interference of signalling within complex microbial communities in which Cyanobacteria are present.     

Pseudomonas corrugata contains a conserved N-acyl homoserine lactone quorum sensing system; its role in tomato pathogenicity and tobacco hypersensitivity response

Pseudomonas corrugata is a phytopathogenic bacterium, causal agent of tomato pith necrosis, yet it is an ubiquitous bacterium that is part of the microbial community in the soil and in the rhizosphere of different plant species. Although it is a very heterogeneous species, all the strains tested were able to produce short chain acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum sensing signal molecules. The main AHL produced was N-hexanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (C(6)-AHL). An AHL quorum sensing system, designated PcoI/PcoR, was identified and characterized. The role of the quorum sensing system in the expression of a variety of traits was evaluated. Inactivation of pcoI abolished the production of AHLs. The pcoR mutant, but not the pcoI mutant, was impaired in swarming, unable to cause a hypersensitivity response on tobacco and resulted in a reduced tomato pith necrosis phenotype. The pcoI mutant showed a reduced antimicrobial activity against various fungi and bacteria when assayed on King's B medium. These results demonstrate that the AHL quorum sensing in Ps. corrugata regulates traits that contribute to virulence, antimicrobial activity and fitness. This is the first report of genes of Ps. corrugata involved in the disease development and biological control activity.     

Utilization of acyl-homoserine lactone quorum signals for growth by a soil pseudomonad and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) are employed by several Proteobacteria as quorum-sensing signals. Past studies have established that these compounds are subject to biochemical decay and can be used as growth nutrients. Here we describe the isolation of a soil bacterium, Pseudomonas strain PAI-A, that degrades 3-oxododecanoyl-homoserine lactone (3OC12HSL) and other long-acyl, but not short-acyl, AHLs as sole energy sources for growth. The small-subunit rRNA gene from strain PAI-A was 98.4% identical to that of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, but the soil isolate did not produce obvious pigments or AHLs or grow under denitrifying conditions or at 42 degrees C. The quorum-sensing bacterium P. aeruginosa, which produces both 3OC12HSL and C4HSL, was examined for the ability to utilize AHLs for growth. It did so with a specificity similar to that of strain PAI-A, i.e., degrading long-acyl but not short-acyl AHLs. In contrast to the growth observed with strain PAI-A, P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 growth on AHLs commenced only after extremely long lag phases. Liquid-chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry analyses indicate that strain PAO1 degrades long-acyl AHLs via an AHL acylase and a homoserine-generating HSL lactonase. A P. aeruginosa gene, pvdQ (PA2385), has previously been identified as being a homologue of the AHL acylase described as occurring in a Ralstonia species. Escherichia coli expressing pvdQ catalyzed the rapid inactivation of long-acyl AHLs and the release of HSL. P. aeruginosa engineered to constitutively express pvdQ did not accumulate its 3OC12HSL quorum signal when grown in rich media. However, pvdQ knockout mutants of P. aeruginosa were still able to grow by utilizing 3OC12HSL. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the degradation of AHLs by pseudomonads or other gamma-Proteobacteria, of AHL acylase activity in a quorum-sensing bacterium, of HSL lactonase activity in any bacterium, and of AHL degradation with specificity only towards AHLs with long side chains.     

Oryza sativa rice plants contain molecules that activate different quorum-sensing N-acyl homoserine lactone biosensors and are sensitive to the specific AiiA lactonase

Gram-negative bacteria most often use N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) as intercellular quorum-sensing signal molecules. In this study, it was demonstrated that rice plants contain AHL mimic molecules that are very sensitive to the highly specific AiiA lactonase enzyme and can activate three different AHL bacterial biosensors, indicating that the compounds have a homoserine lactone structure and could be AHLs. The possible source and biological significance of this finding are discussed.     

Microbial metabolism of quorum-sensing molecules acyl-homoserine lactones, γ-heptalactone and other lactones

The cell-to-cell communication of microorganisms is known to be via exertion of certain chemical compounds (signal molecules) and is referred to as quorum sensing (QS). QS phenomenon is widespread in microbial communities. Several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and fungi use lactone-containing compounds (e.g. acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), γ-heptalactone, butyrolactone-I) as signalling molecules. The ability of microorganisms to metabolise these compounds and the mechanisms they employ for this purpose are not clearly understood. Many studies, however, have focused on identifying AHL and other lactone-degrading enzymes produced by bacteria and fungi. Various strains that are able to utilise these signalling molecules as carbon and energy sources have also been isolated. In addition, several reports have provided evidence on the involvement of lactones and lactone-degrading enzymes in numerous biological functions. These studies, although focused on processes other than metabolism of lactone signalling molecules, still provide insights into further understanding of the mechanisms employed by various microorganisms to metabolise the QS compounds. In this review, we consider conceivable microbial strategies to metabolise AHL and other lactone-containing signalling molecules such as γ-heptalactones.     

Specificity of acyl-homoserine lactone synthases examined by mass spectrometry

Many gram-negative bacteria produce a specific set of N-acyl-L-homoserine-lactone (AHL) signaling molecules for the purpose of quorum sensing, which is a means of regulating coordinated gene expression in a cell-density-dependent manner. AHLs are produced from acylated acyl-carrier protein (acyl-ACP) and S-adenosyl-L-methionine by the AHL synthase enzyme. The appearance of specific AHLs is due in large part to the intrinsic specificity of the enzyme for subsets of acyl-ACP substrates. Structural studies of the Pantoea stewartii enzyme EsaI and AHL-sensitive bioassays revealed that threonine 140 in the acyl chain binding pocket directs the enzyme toward production of 3-oxo-homoserine lactones. Mass spectrometry was used to examine the range of AHL molecular species produced by AHL synthases under a variety of conditions. An AHL selective normal-phase chromatographic purification with addition of a deuterated AHL internal standard was followed by reverse-phase liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in order to obtain estimates of the relative amounts of different AHLs from biological samples. The AHLs produced by wild-type and engineered EsaI and LasI AHL synthases show that intrinsic specificity and different cellular conditions influence the production of AHLs. The threonine at position 140 in EsaI is important for the preference for 3-oxo-acyl-ACPs, but the role of the equivalent threonine in LasI is less clear. In addition, LasI expressed in Escherichia coli produces a high proportion of unusual AHLs with acyl chains consisting of an odd number of carbons. Furthermore, these studies offer additional methods that will be useful for surveying and quantitating AHLs from different sources.     

Biofouling inhibition in MBR by Rhodococcus sp. BH4 isolated from real MBR plant

It has been reported that an indigenous quorum quenching bacterium, Rhodococcus sp. BH4, which was isolated from a real plant of membrane bioreactor (MBR) has promising potential to control biofouling in MBR. However, little is known about quorum quenching mechanisms by the strain BH4. In this study, various characteristics of strain BH4 were investigated to elucidate its behavior in more detail in the mixed liquor of MBR. The N-acyl homoserine lactone hydrolase (AHL–lactonase) gene of strain BH4 showed a high degree of identity to qsdA in Rhodococcus erythropolis W2. The LC-ESI-MS analysis of the degradation product by strain BH4 confirmed that it inactivated AHL activity by hydrolyzing the lactone bond of AHL. It degraded a wide range of N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), but there was a large difference in the degradation rate of each AHL compared to other reported AHL–lactonase-producing strains belonging to Rhodococcus genus. Its quorum quenching activity was confirmed not only in the Luria-Bertani medium, but also in the synthetic wastewater. Furthermore, the amount of strain BH4 encapsulated in the vessel as well as the material of the vessel substantially affected the quorum quenching activity of strain BH4, which provides useful information, particularly for the biofouling control in a real MBR plant from an engineering point of view.     

Transgenic tomato plants alter quorum sensing in plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

Two Gram-negative, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs), denominated as M12 and M14, were classified by 16S rDNA sequencing as Burkholderia graminis species. Both strains were shown to produce a variety of N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum sensing (QS) signalling molecules. The involvement of these molecules in plant growth promotion and the induction of protection against salt stress was examined. AHL production was evaluated in vitro by thin-layer chromatography using AHL biosensors, and the identity of the AHLs produced was determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The in situ production of AHLs by M12 and M14 in the rhizosphere of Arabidopsis thaliana plants was detected by co-inoculation with green fluorescent protein-based biosensor strains and confocal laser scanning microscopy. To determine whether plant growth promotion and protection against salt stress were mediated by QS, these PGPRs were assayed on wild-type tomato plants, as well as their corresponding transgenics expressing YenI (short-chain AHL producers) and LasI (long-chain AHL producers). In wild-type tomato plants, only M12 promoted plant growth, and this effect disappeared in both transgenic lines. In contrast, M14 did not promote growth in wild-type tomatoes, but did so in the LasI transgenic line. Resistance to salt stress was induced by M14 in wild-type tomato, but this effect disappeared in both transgenic lines. The strain M12, however, did not induce salt resistance in wild-type tomato, but did so in LasI tomato plants. These results reveal that AHL QS signalling molecules mediate the ability of both PGPR strains M12 and M14 to promote plant growth and to induce protection against salt stress.     

N-Acylated homoserine lactone production and involvement in the biodegradation of aromatics by an environmental isolate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

N-Acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) is a widespread quorum sensing signal molecule in Gram-negative bacteria and has an important role in many biological processes. However, it is still poorly understood whether or not AHL is present in pollutant treatment processes and further, what its role is in biodegradation processes. In this work, an environmental isolate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa CGMCC 1.860 that is an aromatic degrader and AHL producer was selected. The AHL plate bioassay indicated that AHL was produced by this strain during biodegradation of aromatic compounds including phenol, benzoate, p-hydroxy-benzoate, salicylate, and naphthalene. The AHLs were identified as N-butyryl-l-homoserine lactone (BHL) and N-hexanoyl-l-homoserine lactone (HHL) by using thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC–APCI-MS/MS) analyses. Furthermore, phenol biodegradation was improved by exogenously added AHL extracts or by endogenously over-produced AHLs, repressed by abolishment of AHLs production, and not affected by the addition of extracts without AHLs. The results indicated that AHL was involved in the process of biodegradation of pollutants.     

Visualization of N-acylhomoserine lactone-mediated cell-cell communication between bacteria colonizing the tomato rhizosphere.

Given that a large proportion of the bacteria colonizing the roots of plants is capable of producing N-acyl-L-homoserine lactone (AHL) molecules, it appears likely that these bacterial pheromones may serve as signals for communication between cells of different species. In this study, we have developed and characterized novel Gfp-based monitor strains that allow in situ visualization of AHL-mediated communication between individual cells in the plant rhizosphere. For this purpose, three Gfp-based AHL sensor plasmids that respond to different spectra of AHL molecules were transferred into AHL-negative derivatives of Pseudomonas putida IsoF and Serratia liquefaciens MG1, two strains that are capable of colonizing tomato roots. These AHL monitor strains were used to visualize communication between defined bacterial populations in the rhizosphere of axenically grown tomato plants. Furthermore, we integrated into the chromosome of AHL-negative P. putida strain F117 an AHL sensor cassette that responds to the presence of long-chain AHLs with the expression of Gfp. This monitor strain was used to demonstrate that the indigenous bacterial community colonizing the roots of tomato plants growing in nonsterile soil produces AHL molecules. The results strongly support the view that AHL signal molecules serve as a universal language for communication between the different bacterial populations of the rhizosphere consortium.     

Detection of N-acyl homoserine lactones using a traI-luxCDABE-based biosensor as a high-throughput screening tool

Background

Bacteria use N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) molecules to regulate the expression of genes in a density-dependent manner. Several biosensors have been developed and engineered to detect the presence of all types of AHLs.

Results

In this study, we describe the usefulness of a traI-luxCDABE-based biosensor to quickly detect AHLs from previously characterized mutants of Burkholderia cenocepacia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in both liquid and soft-agar co-culture assays in a high-throughput manner. The technique uses a co-culture system where the strain producing the AHLs is grown simultaneously with the reporter strain. Use of this assay in liquid co-culture allows the measurement of AHL activity in real time over growth. We tested this assay with Burkholderia cenocepacia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa but it should be applicable to a broad range of gram negative species that produce AHLs.

Conclusion

The co-culture assays described enable the detection of AHL production in both P. aeruginosa and B. cenocepacia and should be applicable to AHL analysis in other bacterial species. The high-throughput adaptation of the liquid co-culture assay could facilitate the screening of large libraries for the identification of mutants or compounds that block the synthesis or activity of AHLs.     

Use of a Whole-Cell Biosensor and Flow Cytometry to Detect AHL Production by an Indigenous Soil Community During Decomposition of Litter

Quorum sensing, mediated by acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs), is well described for pure culture bacteria, but few studies report detection of AHL compounds in natural bacterial habitats. In this study, we detect AHL production during a degradation process in soil by use of whole-cell biosensor technology and flow cytometry analysis. An indigenous soil bacterium, belonging to the family of Enterobacteriaceae, was isolated and transformed with a low-copy plasmid harboring a gene encoding an unstable variant of the green fluorescent protein (gfpASV) fused to the AHL-regulated P_luxI promoter originating from Vibrio fischeri. This resulted in a whole-cell biosensor, responding to the presence of AHL compounds. The biosensor was introduced to compost soil microcosms amended with nettle leaves. After 3 days of incubation, cells were extracted and analyzed by flow cytometry. All microcosms contained induced biosensors. From these microcosms, AHL producers were isolated and further identified as species previously shown to produce AHLs. The results demonstrate that AHL compounds are produced during degradation of litter in soil, indicating the presence of AHL-mediated quorum sensing in this environment.     

N-acylhomoserine lactonase producing Rhodococcus spp. with different AHL-degrading activities

N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) are conserved signal molecules that control diverse biological activities in quorum sensing system of Gram-negative bacteria. Recently, several soil bacteria were found to degrade AHLs, thereby interfering with the quorum sensing system. Previously, Rhodococcus erythropolis W2 was reported to degrade AHLs by both oxido-reductase and AHL-acylase. In the present study, two AHL-utilizing bacteria, strains LS31 and PI33, were isolated and identified as the genus Rhodococcus. They exhibited different AHL-utilization abilities: Rhodococcus sp. strain LS31 rapidly degraded a wide range of AHLs, including N-3-oxo-hexanoyl-l-homoserine lactone (OHHL), whereas Rhodococcus sp. strain PI33 showed relatively less activity towards 3-oxo substituents. Coculture of strain LS31 with Erwinia carotovora effectively reduced the amount of OHHL and pectate lyase activity, compared with coculture of strain PI33 with E. carotovora. A mass spectrometry analysis indicated that both strains hydrolyzed the lactone ring of AHL to generate acylhomoserine, suggesting that AHL-lactonases (AHLases) from the two Rhodococcus strains are involved in the degradation of AHL, in contrast to R. erythropolis W2. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on AHLases of Rhodococcus spp.