A further contribution on the biology of the Antarctic flea,Glaciopsyllus antarcticus (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae)

Summary Experiments showed that adult Antarctic Fleas Gladopsyllus antarcticus preferred dark over light conditions, dry over wet conditions, and fine substrate over coarse substrate. Examination of seabird chicks and collections of nest material indicated that the Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides, is the major host species of the Antarctic Flea, while Snow Petrels Pagodroma nivea, Cape Petrels Daption capense, Antarctic Petrels Thalassoica antarctica, and Wilson's Storm-Petrels Oceanites oceanicus are minor hosts. This is the first report of Antarctic Fleas occuring on either Antarctic Petrels or Wilson's Storm-Petrels. No fleas were found associated with Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus, Antarctic Skuas Catharacta maccormicki, or Adelie Penguins Pygoscelis adeliae. No live fleas were found in Southern Fulmar nest material during their period of dispersal over the winter months, supporting the hypothesis that Antarctic Fleas survive the winter period by remaining on their seabird host.     

Relative fitness of a generalist parasite on two alternative hosts: a cross‐infestation experiment to test host specialization of the hen flea Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank)

Host range is a key element of a parasite's ecology and evolution and can vary greatly depending on spatial scale. Generalist parasites frequently show local population structure in relation to alternative sympatric hosts (i.e. host races) and may thus be specialists at local scales. Here, we investigated local population specialization of a common avian nest‐based parasite, the hen flea Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank), exploiting two abundant host species that share the same breeding sites, the great tit Parus major (Linnaeus) and the collared flycatcher Ficedula albicollis (Temminck). We performed a cross‐infestation experiment of fleas between the two host species in two distinct study areas during a single breeding season and recorded the reproductive success of both hosts and parasites. In the following year, hosts were monitored again to assess the long‐term impact of cross‐infestation. Our results partly support the local specialization hypothesis: in great tit nests, tit fleas caused higher damage to their hosts than flycatcher fleas, and in collared flycatcher nests, flycatcher fleas had a faster larval development rates than tit fleas. However, these results were significant in only one of the two studied areas, suggesting that the location and history of the host population can modulate the specialization process. Caution is therefore called for when interpreting single location studies. More generally, our results emphasize the need to explicitly account for host diversity in order to understand the population ecology and evolutionary trajectory of generalist parasites.     

A long-term large-scale study of the breeding biology of the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti)

We present data from a 17-year study of the population biology of a growing population of Spanish imperial eagles Aquila adalberti across most of its breeding range. The objective of this study was to analyse the effects of age, supplemental feeding and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) on several breeding parameters of this population of eagles. Average clutch size was 2.2 eggs per clutch, and the average incubation time was 41.7 days per clutch. Fledging occurred an average of 76.8 days after hatching, the length of the fledgling period was not correlated to clutch size. The annual average percentage of pairs laying eggs was 88%. A significant reduction in the percentage of pairs laying eggs in the period 1992–1994 (from 91 to 81%) coincided with most of the eagles’ territories being affected by the rabbit epizootic disease, RHD, which reduced their food supply significantly. Average productivity was 1.23 chicks per monitored territory, average breeding success was 1.40 chicks in a clutch per territory and the average fledging rate was 1.69 chicks per territory with hatching success. The main known causes of breeding failure during incubation were nest collapse and human disturbance. During chick-rearing, total or partial chick losses were mainly caused by siblicide, disease, malnutrition or nest collapse. In 26.2% of the 1372 monitored breeding attempts, at least one of the breeding birds was a subadult (the male in 56.1% of the cases, the female in 15.5% and both sexes in 28.4% of cases). In cases of mixed-aged pairs (n = 205), 70.7% were the result of a substitution, and 29.3% were the result of the forming of a new pair. Egg laying took place significantly earlier and breeding success was higher in territories occupied by adults than in those occupied by subadults. Breeding parameters were higher in high-quality (rabbit-rich) territories than in low-quality (rabbit-poor) territories, but only for those territories occupied by adults. The values obtained in the territories occupied by adults were only significantly higher than in those of the subadults in high-quality territories. Age and territory quality thus simultaneously affected reproductive output.     

Effects of fleas on nest success of Arctic barnacle geese: experimentally testing the mechanism

Parasites have detrimental effects on their hosts’ fitness. Therefore, behavioural adaptations have evolved to avoid parasites or, when an individual is already in contact with a parasite, prevent or minimize infections. Such anti‐parasite behaviours can be very effective, but can also be costly for the host. Specifically, ectoparasites can elicit strong host anti‐parasite behaviours and interactions between fleas (Siphonaptera) and their hosts are one of the best studied. In altricial bird species, nest fleas can negatively affect both parent and offspring fitness components. However, knowledge on the effects of fleas on precocial bird species is scarce. Research on geese in the Canadian Arctic indicated that fleas have a negative impact on reproductive success. One possible hypothesis is that fleas may affect female incubation behaviour. Breeding females with many fleas in their nest may increase the frequency and/or duration of incubation breaks and could even totally desert their nest. The aim of our study was to 1) determine if a similar negative relationship existed between flea abundance and reproductive success in our study colony of Arctic breeding barnacle geese Branta leucopsis and 2) experimentally quantify if such effects could be explained by a negative effect of nest fleas on female behaviour. We compared host anti‐parasite and incubation behaviour between experimentally flea‐reduced and control nests using wildlife cameras and temperature loggers. We found that flea abundance was negatively associated with hatching success. We found little experimental support, however, for changes in behaviour of the breeding female as a possible mechanism to explain this effect.     

Blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) nest distribution and breeding success on Otago Peninsula, 1992 to 1998

Abstract

Annual counts of nests with eggs or chicks (known nests) were made at blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) breeding sites on the Otago Peninsula in each November from 1994 to 1997. Although the population has doubled to an estimated 600 known nests over this period, the number of breeding sites on the Otago Peninsula has reduced since the 1970s. Breeding success at three areas at Taiaroa Head were monitored by regular nest checks in the breeding season from 1992 to 1998. At Taiaroa Head reproductive success ranged from 41 to 78% at the three sites during the seven‐year study and was generally higher for pairs nesting in nest boxes than for those in burrows. The percentage of breeding pairs that laid a second clutch after fledging at least one chick from their first clutch (double brooded) varied between seasons (0–48%) and was correlated with the date of the onset of breeding. Egg loss, possibly through predation by Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), influenced the significantly lower reproductive success at one area (Area A) at Taiaroa Head during the 1996 season.     

On the fleas and louse (Insecta: Siphonaptera and Anoplura) of the garden dormouse,Eliomys quercinus (L. 1766) in Belgium

More than 3500 fleas, collected in southern Belgium, from 54 garden dormice (Eliomys quercinus) and from 58 nests of the rodent, were examined. Ceratophyllus s. sciurorum seems to be the only regular and abundant flea on the garden dormouse and in its nest whereas Myoxopsylla laverani is quite uncommon (5/31 infested animal and 11/52 infested nests). In comparison, 96 garden dormice were checked in France. M. laverani is present on nearly every infested animal (61/66). Other fleas were also found, some mammal-fleas (Megabothris turbidus, Hystrichopsylla talpae, several Ctenophthalmus spp.) and great numbers of bird-fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae and Dasypsyllus gallinulae) because the dormouse-nests where the fleas were taken were built on old tit-nests (Parus spp). Finally, Schizophthirus pleurophaeus, a louse, was collected for the first time in Belgium.     

Responses of Two Potential Host Species (Formica gnava and Formica occulta) to Pupae of the Obligatory Slave-Making Ant, Polyergus breviceps (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Queens of the slave-making ant, Polyergus breviceps, take over nests of adult Formica workers when establishing new colonies. Although naïve to slave-maker brood, the usurped Formica rear Polyergus offspring and nests containing both host and parasite species forms. Host worker acceptance of parasite brood has been attributed to the similarity of brood tending signals between these closely related taxa and/or the presence of an attractive pheromone in the slave-maker brood. By presenting single-species groups of Formica occulta and Formica gnava (two host species of P. breviceps) with a choice of Formica pupae of both species or with a choice of P. breviceps pupae from both types of mixed-species nests, it seems that neither close phylogenetic relatedness nor an attractive brood odor alone can account for the propensity of host workers to adopt slave-maker pupae. Significantly greater numbers of P. breviceps pupae were adopted by enslaved workers than by free-living workers, and within the enslaved groups and the free-living F. gnava group, greater numbers of P. breviceps pupae were adopted if they were from nests where the host species was conspecific to workers used in tests. When presented with F. gnava and F. occulta pupae, Formica workers adopted conspecific pupae almost exclusively and ignored or consumed pupae of the other host species. Taken together, these results imply that P. breviceps pupae have both a species-specific odor and a general brood-tending pheromone, upon which a host odor may be imposed. The disparate requirements of immatures at different stages of development for cue specificity or generality in maintaining nest exclusivity and maximizing inclusive fitness are discussed.     

Observations on the breeding behaviour of the Stripe‐breasted tit (Parus fasciiventer) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park,Uganda

The motivation of this study was to investigate some hitherto unknown information on the breeding ecology of the Stripe‐breasted Tit (Parus fasciiventer) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, south‐western Uganda. Parus fasciiventer is one of the least studied and endemic bird species restricted to the montane forests of the Albertine Rift. Regionally, it is classified as near‐threatened. The study was carried out around the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation Ruhija camp and the period of study was from January to June 2003. Data were generated through direct observation at the nest box sites of three active nests. Each of the nest boxes was monitored from the time of nest building to the time the chicks fledged. Results and comparative assessments from this study demonstrate that P. fasciiventer, compared with its temperate congeners like Great Tits (Parus major), Marsh Tits (Parus palustris), Crested Tits (Parus cristatus), Coal Tits (Parus ater) and Blue Tits (Parus caeruleus), raised small broods and had longer nestling period. The findings further revealed that the species is capable of raising more than one brood in a single breeding season and provide further evidence that it is a cooperative breeder. Parents participated equally in raising the young, an indication of pure parenting in the species.     

THE BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ROYAL TERNS STERNA (THALASSEUS) MAXIMA MAXIMA

The breeding ecology of the New World race of the Royal Tern Sterna maxima maxima was studied at colonies in Virginia and North Carolina, U.S.A., from 1967 to 1970. Colony sites are quite varied, but isolation, good distance visibility and (especially) freedom from quadruped predators seem important if not essential prerequisites. In Virginia, most adults arrive at the colony site in the last few days of March. Courtship, displaying and copulation take place at, near, and some distance from the colony site. In this the Royal Tern differs from its near relative S. sandvicensis sandvicensis which carries out these activities away from the colony site, presumably as an anti-predator device. Courtship displays are not described, but in their essentials are similar to those of other terns. Copulations continue throughout incubation and gradually disappear when the eggs hatch. No post-copulatory displays are known. Some synchrony of egg-laying is evident, but no “mass laying” occurs, the colony increasing in size steadily over a period of weeks and months. Defaecation on the nest is normal and probably serves to strengthen the nest rim against flooding by high tides. Contrary to published reports, the normal clutch is one; the largest is two, probably often from two different females. All incubating adults examined had two brood patches. Average egg measurements are 63 × 44-5 mm, and average egg weight is 64.3 g. Egg colour varies greatly, and evaluation is difficult. Eggs are probably not cryptically coloured and individual variation, as well as nest-site, are used by returning adults to identify their own eggs. Average maximum nest density is c. 7/m². Sterna sandvicensis acuflavida nests regularly, if not obligatorily, with m. maxima; interactions between the two, and possible benefits accruing to each, are discussed. Unhatched eggs were significantly nearer other nests than were successfully hatched eggs, and possible explanations are given. Incubation lasts about 30–31 days, a week longer than in most terns; both sexes incubate. Broken eggshells are never removed by the adults. Instead, after 2–3 days, the chicks leave the nest permanently to join a creche that roams freely about the immediate vicinity of the colony. Chicks remain in the creche for about 25–30 days, leaving it at fledging, approximately 30 days after hatching. While in the creche, chicks are normally fed only by their parents, who probably recognise them both vocally and visually, using the extensive variation in voice and colour of chicks characteristic of the species. Sandvicensis acuflavida chicks also are highly variable, and join Royal creches, adults of both species attending. Variation also occurs in Royals' juvenal plumage, and seems associated with extended parental care. Feeding adults normally wander up to 40 km from their colony, and this probably facilitates the intercolonial exchange of breeding birds we recorded. They feed inshore, in shallow waters, taking small fish by dives which do not go below the surface. They regularly take small soft-shell crabs in this way, and frequently water-skim like skimmers Rynchops spp., sometimes capturing food while doing so. A relationship between crab capture and water-skimming is established for the first time, and water-skimming in non-feeding contexts is mentioned. Besides the quadruped predators which they normally avoid by fleeing the colony site, Royals have no known predators beyond the egg stage. Eggs, although not chicks, are readily taken by Laughing Gulls. Relationships between the two species are discussed, emphasising their constant association the year round.     

Adoption Behaviour in Little and Common Terns (Aves; Sternidae): Chick Benefits and Parents' Fitness Costs

Adoption seeking by semi-precocial chicks of some bird species can be adaptive since it provides an alternative tactic to permit poorly cared-for young to survive despite their neglectful parents' behaviour. Moreover, own-nest desertion may enhance inclusive fitness of fugitive chicks by increasing survival prospects of siblings. On the other hand, adoption by breeding adults can be detrimental to foster parents' fitness if they invest resources in promoting survival of others' offspring at the expense of their own. In this study we report on the proximate causes and survival consequences of adoption seeking by chicks, and on the presumed costs of adoption sustained by foster parents in two colonial, ground-nesting tern species: the little tern (Sterna albifrons) and the common tern (Sterna hirundo). Adoptions were frequent in little tern and, notably, in common tern colonies. Chicks that deserted their original brood were poorly fed compared with resident chicks, but crowding in the brood and age rank relative to nest companions did not influence the chances of desertion. Deserting their original brood was risky for little tern chicks since stray chicks experienced higher mortality than resident ones. Common tern chicks deserted their original nest significantly more often than little tern chicks. Adoptees of both species benefited by the same survival prospects as resident chicks. A negative correlation existed between the proportion of food given to strange chicks and seasonal fitness or chick survival rate of breeding pairs. This was not predictable because: (1) foster parents could have increased their parental efforts, thus ensuring the same survival prospects to their own chicks, and (2) chicks of foster parents could have been, in turn, adopted thus obliterating the negative fitness effects of adoption. The sexes were identical with respect to their proneness to provide food to strange chicks. We suggest that adoption seeking by little and common tern chicks has evolved as an alternative tactic that is pursued to counter the effects of poor parental care. Adoption behaviour seems maladaptive since it is accompanied by a reduction in seasonal fitness in both species. Possible alternative explanations for nest desertion and adoption behaviour are also discussed.     

Sympatric and allopatric combinations of hen fleas and great tits: a test of the local adaptation hypothesis

To test whether allopatric nest parasites differ from sympatric ones in their effect on various life history traits of their avian host, I designed a cross-transfer experiment in which hen fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae) were exchanged between great tit (Parus major) nests in two geographically widely separated areas. In neither of the areas did allopatric fleas influence body mass, tarsus length, wing length, duration of nestling period or mortality in great tit nestlings more severely than did sympatric fleas. Duration of incubation was also similar among females independent of experimental treatment. This lack of difference between allopatric and sympatric fleas is hypothesized to reflect the comparative harmlessness of hen fleas for their hosts.     

Age-biased parasitism and density-dependent distribution of fleas (Siphonaptera) on a desert rodent

Parasites often confront conflicting demands when evaluating and distributing themselves among host individuals, in order to attain maximum reproductive success. We tested two alternative hypotheses about host preference by fleas in relation to the age of their rodent host. The first hypothesis suggests that fleas select adult over juvenile rodents because the latter represent a better nutritional resource (the “well-fed host” hypothesis), whereas the second hypothesis suggests that fleas prefer the weaker and less resistant juveniles because they are easier to colonise and exploit (“poorly fed host” hypothesis). We sampled fleas (Synosternus cleopatrae) on the gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni) in 23 different plots in the Negev desert and found an unequal distribution of fleas between adult and juvenile hosts. Furthermore, flea distribution changed as a function of flea density—from juvenile-biased flea parasitism (the “poorly fed host” hypothesis) at low densities to adult-biased flea parasitism (the “well-fed host” hypothesis) at high densities. Other factors that influenced flea preference were soil temperature and the presence of ticks. These results suggest that host selection is not an explicit alternative choice between adults and juveniles (“well-fed host” versus “poorly fed host” hypotheses), but rather a continuum where the distribution between adults and juveniles depends on host, parasite, and environmentally related factors.     

Experimental manipulation of temperature reduce ectoparasites in nests of blue tits Cyanistes caeruleus

Several models predict changes in the distributions and incidences of diseases associated with climate change. However, studies that investigate how microclimatic changes may affect host–parasite relationships are scarce. Here, we experimentally increased the temperature in blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus nest boxes during their breeding season to determine its effects on the parasitic abundance (i.e. of nest‐dwelling ectoparasites, blood‐sucking flying insects and hemoparasites) in nests and the host condition of nestlings and adults. The temperature was increased using heat mats placed underneath the nest material, which resulted in an average temperature increase of 3ºC and a reduction in relative humidity of about six units. The abundance of mites Dermanyssus gallinoides and blowfly pupae Protocalliphora azurea was significantly reduced in heated nest boxes. Although not statistically significant, a lower prevalence of flea larvae Ceratophyllus gallinae was also found in heated nests. However, heat treatment did not affect hemoparasite infection of adult blue tits or the body condition of adult and nestling blue tits. In conclusion, heat treatment in blue tit nests reduced nest‐dwelling ectoparasites yet without any apparent benefit for the host.     

Productivity and mortality of mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala)

Abstract

Mohua (Mohoua oehrocephala) breeding and mortality were studied in the Eglinton Valley, Fiordland National Park, New Zealand. Mohua on the valley floor (380 m a.s.l.) bred from early October until March, though birds at higher altitude in the Eglinton and elsewhere started later. In low altitude areas, most pairs raised two broods a year, but elsewhere they seemed to raise only one. Eggs were laid daily, and incubation began with the laying of the last egg and lasted about 20 days. The nestling period was about 23 days. Clutches contained 1–5 eggs, most often three. During three breeding seasons there was no significant nest predation by introduced mammals, but in 1990/91, when stoat (Muslela erminea) numbers were high, 67% of nests and 50% of nesting females were destroyed by stoats. When stoat numbers were low, the productivity and mortality of double‐brooded mohua were well within the ranges recorded for other forest‐dwelling bird species, and the productivity of single‐brooded mohua was lower than that of most other forest‐dwelling passerines. During years when stoat numbers were high, the productivity and mortality of even the double‐brooded mohua were lower than for most other forest‐dwelling passerines. There is some evidence that there were density dependent mechanisms influencing the productivity and survival of chicks.     

Intraspecific nest parasitism in the Spotless Starling Sturnus unicolor

Intraspecific nest parasitism in two colonies of Spotless Starling Sturnus unicolor breeding in nestboxes was studied in central Spain from 1991 to 1994. Nests were monitored regularly and three criteria were used to detect nest parasitism: the appearance of more than one egg per day during the laying period of the host; the appearance of an egg after the start of incubation; eggs with unusual shape or pigmentation. The proportion of parasitized nests in first clutches (37%) was twice that of intermediate (19%) or second (20%) clutches in colony B, whereas parasitism occurred in first (35%) and intermediate (12%) but not in second clutches in colony A. Most clutches (52–70%) were parasitized during the host's laying period and received one parasitic egg. In 10% of the parasitized clutches in colony B, one of the host's eggs disappeared on the day the parasitic egg was added, suggesting that the parasitic female removed this egg. Although parasitism increased clutch size significantly, it led to a decrease in host breeding success, mainly through the removal of eggs and the loss of host nestlings and the survival of parasitic chicks. Observations suggested that parasitic females were young individuals without their own nests and/or those whose breeding attempt had been disrupted while laying in their own nest.     

Ectoparasites,nest site choice and breeding success in the pied flycatcher

It has recently been suggested that nest box studies might bias the measurement of behavioural and life-history traits, because the removal of old nests may reduce the load of ectoparasites. This experimental artefact may have notable effects on nest site choice and breeding success in cavity-breeding birds. We tested (i) if pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca prefer clean nest boxes and (ii) if old nest material affects the number of parasites and the breeding success of pied flycatchers. In the first experiment we offered birds one cleaned nest box and one nest box with old nest material from the previous year. The two nest boxes were placed in very similar sites near each other. In this experiment all pied flycatchers clearly preferred dirty nest boxes. In the second part of the study we distributed clean nest boxes and dirty ones on the same study area. After breeding was over we counted the number of fleas Ceratophyllus gallinae in the nest material. This flea species was the most abundant and probably the most hazardous parasite in the nests. Surprisingly, we found that there were significantly more fleas in the nest boxes with nests of the current year only than in the boxes with nests of both current and previous year. This might explain the preference for the dirty boxes. However, our results do not indicate that the number of fleas affects breeding success in the pied flycatcher.     

Activity budgets of a marked common loon (Gavia immer) nesting population

A newly devised nightlighting technique was used to capture breeding adult common loons (Gavia immer) at the Seney National Wildlife Refuge in northern Michigan in 1989. The behaviors of 6 pairs of known-sex, color-marked common loons were subsequently quantified during the breeding cycle in 1990. Collected observational data indicate that foraging, resting, locomotion, and preening were frequent throughout the breeding cycle. Time spent foraging was greatest during the pre-nesting period (53 to 57%), but declined significantly during the nesting and post-nesting periods (p<0.05). Time spent foraging during the pre-nesting period was similar to that of fall and winter studies. During the pre-nesting period adult loons spent about 15% of the time in locomotion; this was significantly greater than the other time periods (p<0.05) and is attributed to selecting a nest site. During the nesting cycle, almost half of each bird's time spent was nest-sitting. Sexual differences were negligible during nest-sitting. Resting and chick-rearing were the predominant behaviors during the post-nesting period and were responsible for the biggest difference in parental duties. Time spent preening declined from 8% during the pre-nesting period to 4 to 5% during the post-nesting period. Time spent by nesting pairs to produce chicks is approximately 10% during pre-nesting, 48 to 49% during nesting, and between 38 to 44% during post-nesting. By quantifying and establishing behavioral standards, subtle abnormalities or changes can be detected to better manage for viable common loon populations.     

The breeding biology of the Scimitarbilled Woodhoopoe

Steyn, P. 1999. The breeding biology of the Scimitarbilled Woodhoopoe. Ostrich 70 (3&4): 173–178.

The breeding biology of the Scimitarbilled Woodhoopoe Rhinopomastus cyanomelas was studied at two sites in Zimbabwe over a 13-year period from 1964–1977. The pairs were resident, remained together throughout the year, and inspected their nest sites occasionally during the non-breeding season. The breeding season extended from August to December with a marked September/October peak. Eggs were laid at daily intervals. Clutch size averaged 2.9 (range 2–4). Incubation began either with the penultimate or last laid egg. During the 13–14 day incubation period the female left the nest only occasionally each day and was reliant on the male for food. This pattern continued for four days after the chicks hatch. Thereafter she started to forage and gradually increased her contribution to chick provisioning until she overtook that of the male. With one exception, he never fed the chicks directly and delivered the food to the female. The nestlings were brooded overnight for the first two weeks. The anti-predator response of the young included a malodorous brown exudation from the preen gland and unpleasant liquid excreta. The nestling period was 21–24 days and the young left the vicinity of the nest with their parents and did not return to roost in it. Twelve breeding cycles were monitored and 76% of eggs laid (n=37) produced fledged young. Second broods were raised in the same nest on two occasions after successful rearing of the first, presumably by the same pair, but the birds were not individually marked. There was no evidence of helpers at the nest.     

Use of novel nest boxes by carmine bee‐eaters (Merops nubicus) in captivity

Carmine bee‐eaters make attractive additions to zoo aviaries but breeding programs have had challenges and limited success. The objectives of this study were to document nesting behavior of Carmine bee‐eaters in a captive setting and compare reproductive success between a novel nest box (plastic, 17 × 30 × 22 cm) and a PVC pipe model used previously (30 cm long, 8 cm in diameter). Three bee‐eater pairs were given access to seven nest chambers (six novel boxes, one PVC model). Behavioral observations occurred during a 15‐min period in the morning or afternoon before egg production and continued until chicks fledged for a total of 87 observation periods (21.75 hr). All occurrences by an individual bird entering or exiting a nest tunnel, food provision, and the time (min) spent inside a nest cavity were documented. Additionally, daily temperature within each nest chamber was recorded. Before eggs were produced the average daily temperature (23.02°C) within the nest chambers did not differ, suggesting that nest cavity choice was not influenced by temperature. No differences were detected among pairs in percent of observed time spent inside their nest cavities or number of times a nest tunnel was entered during the incubation or fledging periods. During incubation females spent a greater percent of observed time inside the nest cavity than males (P=0.02). During the fledging period food provision did not differ between the pairs, however males entered their nest tunnels more often per hour than females (P=0.03), and males tended to provide food more often than females (P=0.053). Two pairs nested in novel nest boxes and successfully fledged one chick each. The pair that nested in the PVC model did not fledge a chick. A nest box that aids in keeping eggs intact is essential for breeding bee‐eaters in captivity, and maintaining captive populations will provide opportunities for zoo visitors to enjoy these birds and will reduce the need to remove birds from the wild. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Observations on the breeding biology and behaviour of the Lesser Jacana,Microparra capensis

Two Lesser Jacana nests were found in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe and were observed over a period of four months beginning in March 2000. Both sexes were involved in preparing the breeding platform, incubation, and caring for the chicks, which were not carried by the adults. Both nests had three eggs. The incubation period for one clutch of eggs was not less than 19 days. The chicks all hatched on the same day and remained in the vicinity ofthe nest for the first few days where they were brooded by an adult. Initially the adults brought food to the chicks but the chicks started feeding themselves when they moved away from the nest. Ten days after hatching the chicks had doubled in size and were walking confidently with the attending adult some distance from the nest. First flight was seen at 32 days old, and the chicks appeared to be independent 63 days after hatching.