Techne, Technoscience, and the Circulation of Comestible Commodities: An Introduction

In this "In Focus" introduction, we present the ways in which discourses of techne (craft or artisanship) and technoscience mediate the production, consumption, and circulation of food and drink. The authors in this "In Focus" examine food and drink as localized instances of large-scale spatial and temporal processes and as cultural-material markers of power/knowledge. Our work on the current controversies surrounding foie gras exemplifies how specialty commodities marketed as "artisanal" are simultaneously legitimated through technoscientific practices and invocations of tradition or nature. Claims to distinction based on tradition or "terroir" are also imbricated in global industrial production and distribution.     

The application of GMOs in agriculture and in food production for a better nutrition: two different scientific points of view

This commentary is a face-to-face debate between two almost opposite positions regarding the application of genetic engineering in agriculture and food production. Seven questions on the potential benefits of the application of genetic engineering in agriculture and on the potentially adverse impacts on the environment and human health were posed to two scientists: one who is sceptical about the use of GMOs in Agriculture, and one who views GMOs as an important tool for quantitatively and qualitatively improving food production.     

Profile – Børge Diderichsen

Børge Diderichsen (Fig. 1) is the President of the European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) and Vice President at Novo Nordisk (Denmark). After a master's degree in biochemistry, followed by a Ph.D. in microbiology, both from the University of Copenhagen, he joined Novo Industry as part of a small team of researchers who were to examine whether genetically modified organisms (GMOs) could be used in the production of insulin and industrial enzymes. Since then he has played an important role in Novo Nordisk's efforts to resolve many of the problems that arise in connection with the production of GMOs and was a pioneer in bringing some of the first industrial enzymes from GMOs onto the market. Diderichsen has many honorary titles and has served on a large number of boards and commissions. Most recently he was invited to join the Commissioner's Advisory Group for Life Sciences, Genomics and Biotechnology for Health corresponding to the 6th Framework Programme. For more than 20 years he has contributed to the public debate concerning genetic engineering and ethics, biotechnology and society, conditions for universities and public research among others. He has been a major force in reforming the EFB, of which he was elected president in January 2002.

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Fig. 1. Børge Diderichsen.     

Development of a multiplex fluorescence quantitative PCR for detection of genetically modified organisms

The commercially available genetically modified plants authorized worldwide and therefore the target sequences for molecular detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are ever-increasing. The European Union has implemented a set of very strict procedures for approval to grow, import and/or utilize GMOs as food or food ingredients. As a result, GMO laboratories and food production industry currently are forced to apply different methods to test raw material and complex processed food products. Three exogenous genes (the 35 s promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus (35 s), nos terminator from Agrobacterium tumefaciens (nos), and the neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) gene) are commonly used in GMO detection. In this paper, a multiplex quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) system was developed which allows simultaneously detection of the three exogenous genes in one reaction tube. The determined limits for the multiplex qPCR assays were 4 copies/reaction in maize samples. The specificity of the assays was demonstrated to be 100% according to the detection results of 23 genetically modified (GM) crops and 97 complex processed food products. The validation data show the individual PCR efficiency was accredited with negligible impacts between three detection channels in 7500 fluorescence quantitative PCR machine. These results indicate that this high-throughput multiplex qPCR method which combined with a reference gene is feasible for screening of GMOs, even for the processed food.     

Detecting un-authorized genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and derived materials

Genetically modified plants, in the following referred to as genetically modified organisms or GMOs, have been commercially grown for almost two decades. In 2010 approximately 10% of the total global crop acreage was planted with GMOs (James, 2011). More than 30 countries have been growing commercial GMOs, and many more have performed field trials. Although the majority of commercial GMOs both in terms of acreage and specific events belong to the four species: soybean, maize, cotton and rapeseed, there are another 20 + species where GMOs are commercialized or in the pipeline for commercialization. The number of GMOs cultivated in field trials or for commercial production has constantly increased during this time period. So have the number of species, the number of countries involved, the diversity of novel (added) genetic elements and the global trade. All of these factors contribute to the increasing complexity of detecting and correctly identifying GMO derived material. Many jurisdictions, including the European Union (EU), legally distinguish between authorized (and therefore legal) and un-authorized (and therefore illegal) GMOs. Information about the developments, field trials, authorizations, cultivation, trade and observations made in the official GMO control laboratories in different countries around the world is often limited, despite several attempts such as the OECD BioTrack for voluntary dissemination of data. This lack of information inevitably makes it challenging to detect and identify GMOs, especially the un-authorized GMOs. The present paper reviews the state of the art technologies and approaches in light of coverage, practicability, sensitivity and limitations. Emphasis is put on exemplifying practical detection of un-authorized GMOs. Although this paper has a European (EU) bias when examples are given, the contents have global relevance.     

Artisanal Fisheries Research: A Need for Globalization?

Given limited funds for research and widespread degradation of ecosystems, environmental scientists should geographically target their studies where they will be most effective. However, in academic areas such as conservation and natural resource management there is often a mismatch between the geographic foci of research effort/funding and research needs. The former frequently being focused in the developed world while the latter is greater in the biodiverse countries of the Global South. Here, we adopt a bibliometric approach to test this hypothesis using research on artisanal fisheries. Such fisheries occur throughout the world, but are especially prominent in developing countries where they are important for supporting local livelihoods, food security and poverty alleviation. Moreover, most artisanal fisheries in the Global South are unregulated and unmonitored and are in urgent need of science-based management to ensure future sustainability. Our results indicate that, as predicted, global research networks and centres of knowledge production are predominantly located in developed countries, indicating a global mismatch between research needs and capacity.     

Work as cultural production: labour and self–identity among southwest French wine–growers

I criticize insufficiencies in the Marxist conceptualization of labour as instrumental action as a departure–point to evaluate the relation between work and self–identity among southwest French wine–growers who are members of co–operatives. The symbolic distinction between two wine–growing regions, and the tension between wine–growing as an artisanal practice and wine–growing as science, are used historically and ethnographically to argue for a cultural view of work and self–identity that is differentiated and thus acknowledges the potentials and constraints of power. The article also makes use of French ethnographic materials to address broader issues of the anthropology of work, the critique of science, and the cultural means through which subaltern subjects challenge hegemonic culture and the political economy of exploitation.     

A Global Analysis of the Relationship between Farmed Seaweed Production and Herbivorous Fish Catch

Globally, farmed seaweed production is expanding rapidly in shallow marine habitats. While seaweed farming provides vital income to millions of artisanal farmers, it can negatively impact shallow coral reef and seagrass habitats. However, seaweed farming may also potentially provide food subsidies for herbivorous reef fish such as the Siganidae, a valuable target family, resulting in increased catch. Comparisons of reef fish landings across the central Philippines revealed that the catch of siganids was positively correlated to farmed seaweed production whilst negatively correlated to total reef fish catch over the same period of time. We tested the generality of this pattern by analysing seaweed production, siganid catch, and reef fish catch for six major seaweed-producing countries in the tropics. We hypothesized that increased seaweed production would correspond with increased catch of siganids but not other reef fish species. Analysis of the global data showed a positive correlation between farmed seaweeds and siganids in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines) but not Africa (Tanzania and Zanzibar), or the Western Pacific (Fiji). In Southeast Asia, siganid catch increased disproportionately faster with seaweed production than did reef fish catch. Low continuity, sporadic production and smaller volumes of seaweed farming may explain the differences.     

Characterization of bacteriocins produced by strains of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pediococcus pentosaceus</Emphasis> isolated from Minas cheese

Interest in obtaining bacteriocin-producing strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from different sources has been increasing in recent years due to their multiple applications in health and food industries. This study focused on the isolation and characterization of metabolically active populations of bacteriocinogenic LAB and the evaluation of their antimicrobial substances as well as of some nutritional requirements of them. One hundred and fifty colonies of LAB from artisanal cheeses produced in Minas Gerais state (Brazil) were isolated and screened for their antimicrobial activity. According to their activity against Listeria monocytogenes, ten strains were selected and subsequently identified using biochemical and molecular techniques including 16s rRNA amplification and sequencing as Enterococcus faecalis, Lactobacillus spp., and Pediococcus pentosaceus. Antimicrobial substances produced by four of the selected strains, P. pentosaceus 63, P. pentosaceus 145, P. pentosaceus 146, and P. pentosaceus 147, were biochemically characterized, and presented sensitivity to proteolytic enzymes (suggesting their proteinaceous nature) and to extreme pH. Antimicrobial activity showed stability after treatment with lipase, catalase, α-amylase, and chemicals. Growth kinetics of the P. pentosaceus selected showed maximal bacteriocin production at 37 °C during the end of the exponential growth phase (25,600 AU/mL) and stable production during 24 h of incubation. Dextrose, maltose, and a mixture of peptone, meat extract, and yeast extract increased bacteriocin production. This study demonstrated that dairy products provide a good alternative for obtaining LAB, with the ability to produce antimicrobial substances such as bacteriocins that have potential use as biopreservatives in food.     

Net protein contribution and enteric methane production of pasture and grain-finished beef cattle supply chains

Ruminant red meat production systems around the world often include a grain feeding phase. The role of red meat in the food system is therefore often discussed in terms of the food vs feed debate, as well as invoking the comparatively poor feed conversion efficiency of ruminants and climate impacts from enteric methane. The concept of net protein contribution (NPC) incorporates the quality attributes of protein produced by livestock systems into estimates of the efficiency of production systems. We applied the NPC method to two Australian beef supply chains, i) Grass-fed and ii) Grain-finished beef, using an established model of ruminant grazing systems (GrassGro®) and these are reflective of beef production systems in other countries. The beef supply chains evaluated did not compete with humans for protein. The Grain-finished beef supply chain, while positively contributing to human protein requirements (NPC value 1.96), had markedly lower NPC values than the Grass-fed system (NPC value 1 597). However, Grass-fed beef production systems have a higher methane intensity than the Grain-finished supply chain. The two examples of pasture-based beef production systems examined provide a positive net protein contribution to human food supply, even with extended periods of finishing on grain-based diets. This is achieved by ruminant grazing on pastures converting low-quality forage into high value human edible protein. The efficiency of protein production varies according to the system design, and other considerations such as land use and enteric methane production are elements that need consideration in the overall assessment of the production footprint.     

Microbiological quality of Pecorino Siciliano "primosale" cheese on retail sale in the street markets of Palermo, Italy

Pecorino Siciliano (PS) "primosale" is a traditional Sicilian fresh soft cheese made from sheep's milk. Short-ripening time and production from unpasteurized or raw milk can facilitate bacterial contamination of PS "primosale". The microbiological quality of "primosale" on retail sale in the street markets of Palermo, Italy was studied by detecting the common food pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus and indicator microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcaceae. In our study, 4% and 44% of the samples, respectively, did not comply with the acceptability levels fixed by European regulations for S. aureus and E. coli. A high contamination of bacteria belonging to Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcaceae was found in 42% and 50% of the cheeses analyzed, respectively. Such results indicate poor husbandry and poor hygiene practices during milk collection or preservation or during cheese production processes and handling. In addition, the retail sale conditions may have played a role in cheese contamination since a correlation was found between poor microbiological quality and some selling parameters. This study emphasizes the need to improve production hygiene throughout the PS food chain in line with the traditional cheese-making procedures. Labelling of PS with clear information on whether the cheese was prepared from raw milk also requires improvement.     

Gene transfer technology in aquaculture

The gene transfer technique, transgenesis, has permitted the transfer of genes from one organism to another to create new lineages of organisms with improvement in traits important to aquaculture. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), therefore, hold promise for producing genetic improvements, such as enhanced growth rate, increased production and efficiency, disease resistance and expanded ecological ranges. The basic procedure to generate transgenic fish for aquaculture includes: (1) design and construction of transgenic DNA; (2) transfer of the gene construct into fish germ cells; (3) screening for transgenic fish; (4) determination of transgene expression and phenotype; (5) study of inheritance; and (6) selection of stable lines of transgenics.GMOs offer economic benefits, but also pose environmental threats. Optimising the mix of benefits and risks is of fundamental importance. The potential economic benefits of transgenic technology to aquaculture are obvious. Transgenic fish production has the goal of producing food for human consumption; thus the design of genetic constructs must take into consideration the potential risks to consumer health, as well as marketing strategies and product acceptance in the market.     

“三料”转化与生态农业

农业生态经济系统中,饲料、肥料、燃料作为能流、物流的主要形态和通道,影响着整个系统的结构和功能。本文用源、流、库的关系和数据资料,分析了“三料”转化的重要作用。提出了如何提高其转化效率,促进生态农业建设的技术路线。秸秆资源和腐食食物链的开发是技术关键。     

不同生态恢复措施对草地样带食物消费的影响——以锡林郭勒盟为例

生态工程的实施对区域居民生产生活产生了重要影响。以锡林郭勒草地样带为例,利用2017年8月—2018年7月农牧户食物跟踪调查数据、农牧户问卷调查数据、生态恢复措施数据,结合土地利用数据和社会经济数据等,重点分析了不同生态恢复措施对锡林郭勒草地样带农牧户食物消费的影响。研究结果显示:(1)锡林郭勒草地样带生态恢复措施沿样带自北向南实施力度逐渐变弱,草地恢复措施由以草畜平衡、休牧和禁牧为主向休牧和围栏封育为主转变,草地恢复措施中对人类活动的限制也随之由弱变强;(2)沿草地样带自北向南居民食物消费形成了三种模式,在食物消费数量和消费结构上呈显出由牧区特征向农区特征的转变,即人均食物消费量沿样带递减,食物消费由肉蛋奶和蔬菜水果为主向粮食和蔬菜水果为主转变;(3)食物消费模式受到草地供给、收入及其结构、文化习俗和职业分布等生态、经济和社会多方面因素的影响。研究为实现区域生态、经济和社会的协调发展相关政策的制定提供参考。     

转基因食品安全性评价研究进展

自1996年全球转基因作物大规模商业化生产以来,转基因作物种植面积以年均10%左右的速度迅速增长,2013年种植面积已达1.75亿hm2。其在解决全球粮食问题、环境保护、提升粮食营养质量和品质、制药以及推动经济可持续发展方面展现了重要作用。但是,随着转基因商业化生产的深入,转基因技术的潜在风险性引起了社会以及国际上更广泛的关注。事实上,在转基因技术出现之初,科学家们就开始关注其安全性问题。相关国际组织（FAO、WHO、CAC、OECD等）经过数次研究制订了一系列与转基因食品安全性有关的评价原则、指南与措施等。随着转基因技术的发展,这些安全评价策略也在不断完善。我国目前已经基本建立了转基因食品的安全评价和管理体系。转基因食品在进入市场前要经过十分全面以及系统的安全性评价,包括营养学、毒理学、过敏性等方面,从而保障转基因食品的安全性。     

For an ethics of promising, or: a few kind words about James Watson

This essay questions some of the limits that both science studies and bioethics have assumed in their engagements with technoscience, and genomics in particular. It argues that these disciplines have privileged an "ethics of suspicion" regarding technoscience, and argues that this is ill-suited to promissory sciences such as genomics. The essay begins to develop elements of an "ethics of friendship" toward genomics, using examples from toxicogenomics and behavioral genetics, to suggest what an ethics of promising might involve.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactobacillus plantarum</Emphasis> isolated from cheese: production and partial characterization of bacteriocin B391

Lactobacillus plantarum B391, a strain isolated from an artisanal French cheese, is a producer of a bacteriocin, expressing activity against Enterococcus faecalis NCTC 775, Clostridium perfringens NCTC 13170 and several Listeria monocytogenes strains. High stability was recorded after heat treatment at 121 °C for 20 min and when stored at 4 °C for more than 40 days. A challenge test performed in milk for 11 days showed potential for the control of L. monocytogenes. In the presence of the lytic bacteriocin B391, L. monocytogenes cells present numerous morphology modifications of cell shape and surface structure as well as in the cell division pattern, resulting ultimately in lysis. The high level of Listeria growth inhibition obtained in the presence of Lb. plantarum B391, and the stability of B391 bacteriocin for a long period of time, make this strain potentially interesting to use in milk products to increase food safety.     

Co-existence of agricultural production systems

Strategies and best practices for the co-existence of GM and non-GM crops need to be developed and implemented with the participation of farmers and other stakeholders. According to the principle of 'subsidiarity', decisions should be made by the lowest authority possible. When applying this concept to the case of GM crops, the affected society should determine their use and management in a regional decision-making process. Public participation is better accomplished at a lower level, and democratic deficits in decision-making on GMOs are better resolved, enabling farmers to manage or avoid GM crops. Ultimately, voluntary GMO-free zones might be a tool for sustainable co-existence and GM-free production and GMO-free zones might create a specific image for marketing regional products and services, such as tourism.