Masquerade is associated with polyphagy and larval overwintering in Lepidoptera

Masquerading animals benefit from the difficulty that predators have in differentiating them from the inedible objects, such as twigs, that they resemble. The function of masquerade has been demonstrated, but how it interacts with the life history of organisms has not yet been studied. Here, we report the use of comparative analyses to test hypotheses linking masquerade to life‐history parameters. We constructed a phylogenetic tree of the British species of the lepidoptera families Geometridae and Drepanidae, and compiled life history and coloration data from the literature. We found that masquerade is associated with the exploitation of a greater diversity of host plants whether measured by the number of families or genera. We found a positive relationship between body size and polyphagy among masquerading species, and no relationship among cryptic species. Among those species predominantly found on woody host plants, masquerading species are more likely to overwinter as larvae while cryptic species mostly overwinter as pupae. Polyphenism was associated with multivoltinism in masquerading species but not cryptic species. Taken together, our results show that masquerade must be viewed as a strategy distinct to crypsis and hence may provide insights into the evolution of both defensive strategies. Our study further demonstrates the utility of broad‐scale between‐species comparisons in studying associations between diverse life‐history parameters and sensory aspects of predator‐prey interactions. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106 , 90–103.     

Interactions of suboesophageal ganglion and frontal ganglion motor patterns in the locust

Although locust feeding has been well studied, our understanding of the neural basis of feeding-related motor patterns is still far from complete. This paper focuses on interactions between the pattern of rhythmic movements of the mouth appendages, governed by the suboesophageal ganglion (SOG), and the foregut movements, controlled by the frontal ganglion (FG), in the desert locust. In vitro simultaneous extracellular nerve recordings were made from totally isolated ganglia as well as from fully interconnected SOG-FG and brain-SOG-FG preparations. SOG-confined bath application of the nitric oxide donor, SNP, or the phosphodiesterase antagonist, IBMX, each followed by the muscarinic agonist pilocarpine, consistently induced robust fictive motor patterns in the SOG. This was observed in both isolated and interconnected preparations. In the brain-SOG-FG configuration the SOG-confined modulator application had an indirect excitatory effect on spontaneous FG rhythmic activity. Correlation between fictive motor patterns of the two ganglia was demonstrated by simultaneous changes in burst frequency. These interactions were found to be brain-mediated. Our results indicate the presence of intricate neuromodulation-mediated circuit interactions, even in the absence of sensory inputs. These interactions may be instrumental in generating the complex rhythmic motor patterns of the mandibles and gut muscles during locust feeding or ecdysis-related air swallowing.     

Neuromodulation for behavior in the locust frontal ganglion

Neuromodulators orchestrate complex behavioral routines by their multiple and combined effects on the nervous system. In the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, frontal ganglion neurons innervate foregut dilator muscles and play a key role in the control of foregut motor patterns. To further investigate the role of the frontal ganglion in locust behavior, we currently focus on the frontal ganglion central pattern generator as a target for neuromodulation. Application of octopamine, a well-studied insect neuromodulator, generated reversible disruption of frontal ganglion rhythmic activity. The threshold for the modulatory effects of octopamine was 10^–6 mol l^–1, and 10^–4 mol l^–1 always abolished the ongoing rhythm. In contrast to this straightforward modulation, allatostatin, previously reported to be a myoinhibitor of insect gut muscles, showed complex, tri-modal, dose-dependent effects on frontal ganglion rhythmic pattern. Using a novel cross-correlation analysis technique, we show that different allatostatin concentrations have very different effects not only on cycle period but also on temporal characteristics of the rhythmic bursts of action potentials. Allatostatin also altered the frontal ganglion rhythm in vivo. The analysis technique we introduce may be instrumental in the study of not fully characterized neural circuits and their modulation. The physiological significance of our results and the role of the modulators in locust behavior are discussed.Abbreviation CPG central pattern generator - FG frontal ganglion - JH juvenile hormone - STNS stomatogastric nervous system     

The neuronal connections of the frontal ganglion of the cockroach Periplaneta americana

Summary The frontal ganglion of the cockroach Periplaneta americana was studied histologically and its neuronal pathways were mapped by use of axonal cobalt iontophoresis. Neurons and fiber tracts of the frontal ganglion are directly linked with different regions of the central nervous system (tritocerebrum, protocerebrum, subesophageal ganglion) and with the more caudal parts of the stomatogastric nervous system (hypocerebral ganglion, nervus oesophagei).Supported by the Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Technik der DDR     

Comparison of the cold hardiness of two larval Lepidoptera (Noctuidae)

Abstract Diapause larvae of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubn.)) and the related Mediterranean noctuid Sesamia cretica Led. possess sufficient supercooling ability to avoid freezing over their normal environmental temperature ranges. In progressive chilling experiments (10 days acclimation at each 5° step in the temperature range from 15 to ?5°C), mean supercooling points (measured at a cooling rate of 0.1°C min^?1) were lowered from ?20.4°C at 15°C to ?24.0°C at 5°C (lower lethal temperatures: c.?28°C) in O.nubilalis, compared with ?15.0 to ?17.2°C (lower lethal temperatures: ?15 to ?17°C respectively) in S.cretica. Concentrations of glycerol and trehalose determined by gas chromatography of whole body extracts were consistently higher in the former than in the latter species at both 15 and 5°C, and may be responsible for the deeper supercooling in O.nubilalis larvae. Acclimation to 5°C increased glycerol levels in O. nubilalis extracts compared with 15°C, and this was enhanced in larvae exposed for a further 10 days at each of 0 and ?5°C (glycerol being 438μmol ml^?1 body water). Haemolymph glycerol concentrations showed a similar pattern to whole body extracts in this species. Fat body glycogen was reduced during low temperature acclimation in both species. Body water contents did not change with acclimation in O.nubilalis, whilst S.cretica, containing significantly more water, lost c.7% during acclimation from 15 to 5°C. Haemolymph osmolalities increased during acclimation, especially in Ostrinia larvae, probably as a result of the accumulation of cryoprotectants. The majority of O.nubilalis larvae survived freezing under the conditions of the cooling experiments, whilst larvae of S.cretica did not, thereby confirming an element of freezing tolerance in the former.     

Innexin genes and gap junction proteins in the locust frontal ganglion

Gap junctions (GJs) belong to one of the most conserved cellular structures in multicellular organisms. They probably serve similar functions in all Metazoa, providing one of the most common forms of intercellular communication. GJs are widely distributed in embryonic cells and tissues and have been attributed an important role in development, modulating cell growth and differentiation. These channels have been also implicated in mediating electrical synaptic signaling; Coupling through GJs is now accepted as a major pathway that supports network behavior and contributes to physiological rhythms. Here we focus on the physiology and molecular biology of GJs in a recently established model for the study of rhythm-generating networks and their role in behavior: the frontal ganglion (FG) of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Four novel genes of the invertebrate GJs (innexin) gene family were found to be expressed in the FG: Sg-inx1, Sg-inx2, Sg-inx3 and Sg-inx4. Immunohistochemistry revealed that some of the neurons in the FG express at least one innexin protein, INX1. We also established the presence of functional gap junction proteins in the FG and demonstrated functional electrical coupling between the neurons in the FG. This study forms the basis for further investigation of the role of GJs in network development and behavior.     

Bioecology of Stenoma catenifer (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) and associated larval parasitoids reared from Hass avocados in Guatemala

A 10-wk study of the avocado seed-feeding moth Stenoma catenifer Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae), was conducted in a commercial 'Hass' avocado (Persea americana Miller [Lauraceae]) orchard in Guatemala. Up to 45% of fruit in the orchard were damaged by larval S. catenifer. Larval-to-adult survivorship for 1,881 S. catenifer larvae in Hass fruit was 37%, and adult sex ratio was 51% female. Four species of larval parasitoid were reared from field-collected S. catenifer larvae. The most common parasitoid reared was a gregarious Apanteles sp., which parasitized 53% of larvae and produced on average eight to nine cocoons per host. Apanteles sp. sex ratio was 47% female and 87% of parasitoids emerged successfully from cocoons. Apanteles sp. longevity was approximately equal to 1.5 d in the absence of food, and when provisioned with honey, parasitoids survived for 5-7 d. The mean number of cocoons produced by Apanteles sp. per host, and larval parasitism rates were not significantly affected by the number of S. catenifer larvae inhabiting seeds. Oviposition studies conducted with S. catenifer in the laboratory indicated that this moth lays significantly more eggs on the branch to which the fruit pedicel is attached than on avocado fruit. When given a choice between Hass and non-Hass avocados, S. catenifer lays up to 2.69 times more eggs on Hass.     

The effects of a fluctuating environment on the water relations of larval Lepidoptera

Abstract. New techniques for haemolymph analysis under field conditions have permitted studies of short-term changes in the body fluid concentrations of insects, in association with ambient conditions.
The haemolymph of four species of caterpillar changes in relation to the prevailing relative humidity, but the magnitude of these changes was correlated with the degree of exposure to the environment characteristic of each species and instar. In larvae habitually fully exposed to ambient conditions, haemolymph concentrations normally changed predictably through a day in relation to the humidity. However, osmoregulatory mechanisms operated to keep the increments in osmolality within acceptable limits. For those larvae which inhabit protected microenvironments with constant high humidity, either in association with plants or in conspecific aggregations, ambient humidity had little effect on the blood when this was sampled in situ. But when removed from such habitats, blood osmolality increases were large and rapid, and the larvae often succumbed to desiccation.
The role of biochemical, physiological, behavioural and ecological strategies in establishing the water balance of an insect in its natural surroundings are considered in the light of these findings.     

Neuropeptide co-localisation in the lepidopteran frontal ganglion studied by electron-microscopic gold-labelling immunocytochemistry

An immunogold-labelling electron-microscopic study of the frontal ganglion of two noctuids, Lacanobia oleracea and Helicoverpa armigera, has been carried out with antisera directed against three neuropeptides; allatostatins of the Y/FXFGL-NH₂ type, Manduca sexta allatostatin (Mas-AS) and M. sexta allatotropin. The ganglion of both noctuids has two pairs of large peptidergic neurones with many clusters of electron-dense granules, one pair being situated anteriorly and the other posteriorly. By means of a double-labelling (flip-flop) technique, with different sizes of gold particles, all possible paired combinations of the three different types of peptide have been visualised within granules of the anterior neurones, leading to the conclusion that the three peptides are co-packaged and co-stored in these cells. Within the posterior neurones of L. oleracea, gold labelling of granules is only linked to the Y/FXFGL-NH₂ allatostatin antisera and, in contrast to the anterior cells of this species in which double gold labelling results in a sparse accumulation of gold particles for any one peptide type, single labelling gives a more intense, uniform pattern of gold particles. In contrast to L. oleracea, the gold-labelling pattern seen in the posterior neurones of H. armigera reflects the co-localisation of allatostatins of the Y/FXFGL-NH₂ type with Mas-AS in this species. Allatotropin is absent in the posterior neurones of both species.Grant funding was from the Wellcome Trust: grant no. 068105 (A.T.)     

茶尺蠖幼虫脑的解剖结构

【目的】明确茶尺蠖Ectropis obliqua Prout 5龄幼虫脑解剖结构,并分析和构建幼虫脑以及脑内部各神经髓结构的三维结构模型。【方法】采用免疫组织化学方法,利用突触蛋白抗体,染色标记脑内神经突触,定位突触联系密集分布的区域,获得脑内部神经髓的结构。利用激光共聚焦显微镜获取脑扫描图像,然后利用三维图像分析软件AMIRA进行图像分析,构建脑的三维结构模型,并计算脑以及脑内各神经髓结构的体积。【结果】突触蛋白抗体染色显示,茶尺蠖5龄幼虫脑内具有很多神经突触联系密集分布的区域,这些不同区域即为脑的不同神经髓结构。茶尺蠖幼虫脑主要包括前脑、中脑和后脑3个组成部分。其中前脑最大,包括成对的视叶、蕈形体、前脑桥和侧副叶以及不成对的中央体。视叶位于前脑的两侧后端。蕈形体位于脑半球正中间位置。侧副叶在中央体的下前方两侧。中央体在脑的正中心。前脑桥在中央体的上方后侧。除这些形态结构明显的神经髓区域外,前脑还包括大量内部边界不明显的神经髓区域,位于前脑左右两侧以及背侧和腹侧,这些区域被总称为中间脑,占整个脑神经髓的66%。触角叶为中脑的主要组成部分,在脑的下部最前端,为一对球状结构。后脑在脑的腹侧和触角叶下方,即围咽神经索进入脑的入口处。【结论】构建了茶尺蠖5龄幼虫脑以及各神经髓结构三维模型,分析了脑内各个神经髓之间的空间位置关系,明确了各神经髓的体积。茶尺蠖幼虫脑体积小而且结构简单的特征与其幼期视觉、嗅觉等感觉器官不发达、活动能力弱、行为简单的生物学习性相对应。     

Comparative morphology and evolution of the funnel warts of larval Lymantriidae (Lepidoptera)

The larval funnel warts of 14 species of Lymantriidae (tussock moths) were investigated by means of scanning electron microscopy. The smaller, paired osmeteria on other abdominal segments were also inspected in four of the species. It seems that the bilaterally symmetrical funnel warts have developed by fusion of two smaller, single osmeteria. Based on the morphological findings from surface views and inside views of the structures, we made an attempt to reconstruct the pathway of evolution of the funnel warts. The high degree of specific modifications of the funnel warts appears valuable for analyses of the phylogenetic relationship of the investigated species.     

The role of the frontal ganglion in the control of protein metabolism inLocusta migratoria

Summary 1. After removal of the frontal ganglion, there is an immediate permanent decrease in the blood protein level.2. The cytoplasmic RNA concentration, the blood amino-acid level and the midgut protease level, also decrease after this operation.3. These effects cannot be reversed by feeding as is the case in starved animals.4. The above results provide clear evidence that the frontal ganglion plays a vital part in controlling protein synthesis in the growing locust.

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Die Bedeutung des Frontalganglions für die Kontrolle des Proteinstoffwechsels beiLocusta migratoria

Kurzfassung Am dritten Nymphenstadium vonLocusta migratoria konntenClarke &Langley (1963a) zeigen, daß die Entfernung des Frontalganglions eine völlige Einstellung des Körperwachstums zur Folge hat. Elektrophorese des Blutes operierter Tiere läßt eine starke permanente Abnahme des Proteingehaltes erkennen. Gleichzeitig kommt es zu einer allgemeinen Verringerung des RNS-Gehaltes der Gewebe. Diese ist besonders augenfällig in den aktivsten Geweben, wie etwa der Epidermis und dem Mitteldarmepithel. Weiterhin ergaben papierchromatographische Untersuchungen, daß — im Gegensatz zu der bei Hungertieren angetroffenen Situation — eine Abnahme der Aminosäurekonzentration des Blutes erfolgt, welche ihrerseits wiederum zu einem Zusammenbruch des Wasserhaushaltes führt. Noch nicht abgeschlossene Untersuchungen über die Mitteldarmproteasen deuten auf eine ungenügende Synthese dieser Enzyme in den Epithelzellen der operierten Tiere hin. Es wird eine allgemeine Kontrolle der Proteinsynthese durch das neurosekretorische System postuliert und angenommen, daß dieses System wiederum durch sensorische Impulse kontrolliert wird, welche von den pharyngealen Dehnungsrezeptoren über das Frontalganglion zum Gehirn gelangen.

     

The locust frontal ganglion: a multi-tasked central pattern generator

The locust frontal ganglion (FG) constitutes a major source of innervation to the foregut dilator muscles and thus plays a key role in control of foregut movements. This paper reviews our recent studies on the generation and characteristics of FG motor outputs in two distinct and fundamental locust behaviors: feeding and molting. In an in vitro preparation, isolated from all descending and sensory inputs, the FG was spontaneously active and generated rhythmic multi-unit bursts of action potentials, which could be recorded from all efferent nerves. Thus the FG motor pattern is generated by a central pattern generator within the ganglion. Intracellular recordings suggest that only a small fraction (10-20%) of the FG 100 neurons demonstrate rhythmic activity. The FG motor output in vivo was relatively complex, and strongly dependent on the locust's physiological and behavioral state. Rhythmic activity of the foregut was found to depend on the amount of food present in the crop; animals with full crop demonstrated higher FG burst frequency than those with empty crop. At the molt, the FG generates a distinct motor pattern that could be related to air-swallowing behavior.     

The frontal ganglion of Periplaneta americana L. (insecta)

Summary The frontal ganglion, part of the stomatogastric nervous system, contains about 60 to 80 neurons, 25 to 30 m in diameter. A well developed Golgi system, producing dense-core vesicles, lysosomes, multivesicular bodies and dense bodies are abundant. Glia elements are sparsely distributed. Many nerve fibres contain granules of different size and electron density. Five groups of fibres can be distinguished: Fibres with granules of about 200 nm (type A), fibres with granules of about 160 to 170 nm (type B), fibres with granules of about 80 to 100 nm (type C) and those with synaptic vesicles of 50 nm (type D) respectively. A fifth very small type contains neither vesicles nor granules. Special attention was paid to synaptic contacts. The divergent dyad seems to be the main type in the frontal ganglion. Frequently, neurosecretory endings are observed in presynaptic position. Immunocytochemical staining of neurosecretory material closely corresponds to the distribution of type A fibres, as observed electron microscopically. Immunoelectrophoresis of extracts from frontal ganglia with polyspecific anti-neurosecretion-serum reveals a single precipitation line, indicating that the immunocytochemical localization of neurosecretory material is due to reaction with a specific as well as a crossreagent antibody.Supported by the Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Technik der DDRThe authors wish to thank Mrs. B. Cosack and Mrs. A. Schmidt for excellent technical assistance     

A pineal ganglion associated with the pineal tract in the domestic fowl

Summary A ganglion-like aggregate consisting of acetyl-cholinesterase-positive neurons was demonstrated in the pineal organ of the domestic fowl by means of light and electron microscopy. This ganglion is located in juxtaposition with the pineal tract at the posterior (caudal) aspect of the pineal stalk. Numerous large and small neurons formed the ganglion in 40-day-old domestic fowl. Some of these nerve cells established direct neuro-neuronal contacts, others were surrounded by satellite cells. These ganglion cells displayed axo-somatic and axo-dendritic synapses. The above-mentioned cluster of nerve cells may be considered as a pineal ganglion. Its central or peripheral nature is open to discussion. Send offprint requests to: Dr. K. Wake, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, 113, Japan     

Seasonal change of Lepidopteran larval assemblage associated with leaf quality

The community structure of herbivorous animals is frequently regulated by the nutritional condition of their host plant. The present study was aimed at investigating relationship between leaf chemistry traits and assemblages of Lepidoptera larvae in southwestern part of Korea. We selected three sites in rural landscapes and lepidopteran larvae were collected using a beating sheet from May to August. We collected leaves of two major host plants, Eurya japonicaThunb andQuercusserrataThunb and measured water content, nitrogen content, carbon content and area eaten of leaf. During the last four months we collected a total of 481 individuals in more than 25 different plant species. The number of larvae was highest in July and most abundant in Eurya japonica with 253 individuals. Leaf quality varied in each month. The correlation between leaf quality and assemblage of larvae showed that the carbon content only affected the number of larvae (r =?0.833, p < 0.01). Interestingly the water content and area eaten by the larvae was positively correlated (r = 0.835, p < 0.05).