睡莲科的属间关系研究

本文用谱系分支法分析睡莲科的属间关系,３５个衍征中,分析了３１个特征的进化趋势,根据分析将睡莲科提升为睡莲目,分为３个科,莲科、水盾草科、睡莲科。     

莲属(Nelumbo Adans.)的系统学研究进展和莲科的确立

本文介绍了莲属的系统学研究的历史和最新研究成果．综述了莲属从睡莲科中独立出来,单独成科的形态学、解剖学、细胞学、孢粉学、胚胎学、植物化学、分子生物学及花器官发生等多方面的证据,并对莲科的系统学地位进行了总结。     

分支系统学和种系发生种

简要评述进化系统学和分支系统学的物种概念问题。介绍了关系物种问题研究的一些新进展,特别是种系发生种概念和种系发生种的划定方法－居群聚合分析和分支单型聚合。     

Logic in systematics

Systematic biologists attempt to infer the taxonomic relationship of one species to another based on the available evidence. Phylogenetic systematists demand that these species relationships reflect evolutionary history (they expect their taxa to be monophyletic). Just exactly how this is to be achieved remains a subject of debate. There are many different kinds of evidence, and many different ways of inferring taxonomic relationships (plus evolutionary history) from them. In this paper, we argue that one such way of inferring species relationships, the hypothetico‐deductive method, proves a bad fit with phylogenetic systematics because it requires an excessively strong assumption of the relationship that obtains between hypotheses of descent and the available evidence.     

金鱼藻科系统位置评述

金鱼藻科(ceratophyllaceae)含1属7种,广布全世界。形态学研究显示,金鱼藻科具有许多难以解释的性状,与其它类群无法比较;最新的分子系统发育研究显示,金鱼藻科是现存被子植物的基部类群之一;有关金鱼藻科的系统位置存在争议,被子植物(有花植物)的起源与辐射一直是植物系统学家关注的热点。本文对该科系统位置的研究历史与现状进行评述。     

Phylogenetic Analysis of the Family Taxodiaceae

In the present paper,both cladistic analysis and phenetic analysis were conducted to evaluate the phylogenetic relationships of the Taxodiaceae based on an extensive literature review and study of herbarium． In the cladistic analysis,the Sciadopityaceae was chosen as outgroup．The polarity of characters was determined mainly according to outgroup comparison,fossil evidence and generally accepted viewpoints of morphological evolution．By the result of compatibility analysis,character 2(leaf type),which possessed a much higher coefficient than others whether or not its polarity was altered,was deleted． Finally,a data matrix consisting of all the extant nine genera and 24 characters was analyzed using Maximal Same Step Method,Synthetic Method,Evolutionary Extremal Aggregation Method and Minimal Parallel Evolutionary Method,and four cladograms were generated,of which only the most parsimonious one (Fig．1)was presented for discussion. The cladogram shows that the Taxodiaceae are assorted along five lines of evolution： 1)Metasequoia;2)Sequoiadendron,Sequoia;3)Cryptomeria;4)Glyptostrobus and Taxodium;5)Cunninghamia,Athrotaxis and Taiwania． Ten genera(including Sciadopitys)and 59 characters were used in the phenetic analysis．The phenogram(Fig．2)indicates that Sciadopitys is a very distinct group with remote affinity to the other genera,and the Taxodiaceae are divided into four groups：1)Sequoia,Sequoiadendron;2)Athrotaxis,Cunninghamia and Taiwania;3)Cryptomeria,Glyptostrobus and Taxodium;4)Metasequoia． Based primarily on the result of cladistics,with reference to that of phenetics,the main conclusions were drawn as follows：(1)Generic relationships：Cryptomeria should be considered the most primitive genus in the extant groups of the Taxodiaceae. Glyptostrobus and Taxodium, close to Cryptomeria, are sister taxa and relatively primitive groups. Sequoiadendron and Sequoia are closely related and intermediate advanced. Metasequoia is a more or less isolated taxon, relatively close to Sequoiadendron and Sequoia. Cunninghamia. Athrotaxis and Taiwania might represent a single lineage and form a very advanced group, of which Taiwania may be the most specialized. (2) Systematic treatments: The authors support the viewpoint that Sciadopitys should be treated as an independent family, and suggest that the Taxodiaeae should be divided into five tribes. Systematic arrangements are as follows: Taxodiaceae Warming Trib. 1. Cryptomerieae Vierhapper Gen. 5. Sequoia Endl. Gen. 1. Cryptomeria D. Don Trib. 4. Metasequoieae Pilger et Melchior Trib. 2. Taxodieae Benth. et Hook. Gen. 6. Metasequoia Miki ex Hu et Cheng Gen. 2. Glyptostrobus Endl. Trib. 5. Cunninghamieae Zucc. Gen. 3. Taxodium Rich. Gen. 7. Cunninghamia R. Br. Trib. 3. Sequoieae Wettstein Gen. 8. Athrotaxis D. Don Gen. 4. Sequoiadendron Buchholz Gen. 9. Taiwania Hayata     

线粒体DNA序列特点与昆虫系统学研究

昆虫线粒体DNA是昆虫分子系统学研究中应用最为广泛的遗传物质之一。线粒体DNA具有进化速率较核DNA快 ,遗传过程不发生基因重组、倒位、易位等突变 ,并且遵守严格的母系遗传方式等特点。本文概述了mtDNA中的rRNA、tRNA、蛋白编码基因和非编码区的一般属性 ,分析了它们在昆虫分子系统学研究中的应用价值 ,以及应用DNA序列数据来推导分类阶 (单 )元的系统发育关系时 ,基因或DNA片段选择的重要性     

Phylogenetic systematics of microorganisms inhabiting thermal environments

Thermal habitats harbor specialized communities of thermophilic microorganisms, primarily prokaryotes. This review considers modern systematics of prokaryotes and the place of thermophilic archaea and bacteria in it. Among the existing hierarchical classifications of prokaryotes, the bulk of attention is given to the one accepted in the current second edition of "Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology", which is primarily based on 16S rRNA phylogeny and phenotypic properties of the organisms. Analysis of the genomics data shows that they on the whole agree with the 16S rRNA-based system, although revealing the significance of the evolutionary role of lateral transfer, duplication, and loss of genes. According to the classification elaborated in the current edition of "Bergey's Manual", the prokaryotes currently culturable under laboratory conditions are distributed among 26 phyla, two of which belong to the domain Archaea and 24 to the domain Bacteria. Six phyla contain exclusively thermophiles, and eleven phyla contain thermophiles along with mesophiles, thermophiles being usually separated phylogenetically and representing high-level taxa (classes, orders). In light of the data on the topology of the 16S rRNA-based phylogenetic tree and some other data, this review discusses the probable hyperthermophilic nature of the universal common ancestor.     

The role of parsimony,outgroup analysis,and theory of evolution in phylogenetic systematics

It is argued that both the principle of parsimony and the theory of evolution, especially that of natural selection, are essential analytical tools in phylogenetic systematics, whereas the widely used outgroup analysis is completely useless and may even be misleading. In any systematic analysis, two types of patterns of characters and character states must be discriminated which are referred to as completely and incompletely resolved. In the former, all known species are presented in which the characters and their states studied occur, whereas in the latter this is not the case. Dependent on its structure, a pattern of characters and their states may be explained by either a unique or by various conflicting, equally most parsimonious hypotheses of relationships. The so-called permutation method is introduced which facilitates finding the conflicting, equally most parsimonious hypotheses of relationships. The utility of the principle of parsimony is limited by the uncertainty as to whether its application in systematics must refer to the minimum number of steps needed to explain a pattern of characterts and their states most parsimoniously or to the minimum number of evolutionary events assumed to have caused these steps. Although these numbers may differ, the former is usually preferred for simplicity. The types of outgroup analysis are shown to exist which are termed parsimony analysis based on test samples and cladistic type of outgroup analysis. Essentially, the former is used for analysing incompletely resolved patterns of characters and their states, the latter for analysing completely resolved ones. Both types are shown to be completely useless for rejecting even one of various conflicting, equally most parsimonious hypotheses of relationships. According to contemporary knowledge, this task can be accomplished only by employing the theory of evolution (including the theory of natural selection). But even then, many phylogenetic-systematic problems will remain unsolved. In such cases, arbitrary algorithms like those offered by phenetics can at best offer pseudosolutions to open problems. Despite its limitations, phylogenetic systematics is superior to any kind of aphylogenetic systematics (transformed cladistics included) in approaching a (not: the) “general reference system” of organisms.     

A Phylogenetic Analysis of Families in the Hamamelidae

A cladistic analysis of the families in the Hamamelidae is made in the present paper. As a monophyletic group, the subclass Hamamelidae includes 19 families, namely, the Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Cercidiphyllaceae, Eupteleaceae, Eucommiaceae, Hamamelidaceae (incl. Rhodoleiaceae and Altingiaceae), Platanaceae, Daphniphyllaceae, Balanopaceae, Didymelaceae, Myrothamnaceae, Buxaceae, Simmondsiaceae, Casuarinaceae, Fagaceae (incl. Nothofagaceae), Betulaceae, Myricaceae, Rhoipteleaceae and Juglandaceae. The Magnoliaceae was selected for outgroup comparison after careful consideration. Thirty-two informative character states were used in this study. Three principles, namely, outgroup comparison, fossil evidence and generally accepted viewpoints of morphological evolution, were used for polarization of the characters. An incompatible number concept was first introduced to evaluate the reliable degree of polarization of the characters and, by this method, the polarization of the three character states was corrected. A data matrix was constructed by the 19 ingroup families and 32 character states. The data matrix was analysed with the Minimal Parallel Evolutionary Method, Maximal Same Step Method (Xu 1989), and Synthetic Method. Three cladograms were constructed and a parsimonious cladogram (Length= 131)was used as the base for discussing the systematic relationships of families in the Hamamelidae. According to the cladogram, the earlist group differented in the subclass Hamamelidae consists of two vesselless wood families, the Trochodendraceae and Tetracentraceae. This result supports the concept proposed by Takhtajan (1987)and Cronquist (1981, 1988)that the Trochodendrales is probably a primitive taxon in the Hamamelidae. As in a clade group, the Cercidiphyllaceae, Eucommiaceae, Balanopaceae and Didymelaceae originated apparently later than the Trochodendrales. The Cercidiphyllaceae diverged earlier in this group, which implies that this family and the Trochodendrales form a primitive group in the subclass. The Cercidiphyllaceae is either placed in Hamamelidales (Cronquist 1981, Thorne 1983), or treated as an independent order (Takhtajan 1987).This analysis suggests that the Cercidiphyllaceae is a relatively isolated taxon, far from the Hamamelidaceae but close to the Trochodendrales in relation. The Eucommiaceae and Didymelaceae are both isolated families and considered as two distinct orders (Takhtajan 1987, Cronquist 1981, 1988).The Balanopaceae is included in the Fagales (Cronquist 1981, 1988) or Pittosporales (Thorne 1983), or treated as a distinct order Balanopales (Takhtajan 1987 ).Obviously the Balanopaceae and Eucommiaceae are not closely related because of the sole synapomorphy (placentation).In fact these four families are more or less isolated taxa and it is probably more reasonable to treat them as independent orders. Cronquist ( 1981, 1988) places the Eupteleaceae, Platanaceae and Myrothamnaceae in the Hamamelidales, while Takhtajan (1987)puts Hamamelidaceae and Platanaceae into the Hamamelidales and treats the Eupteleaceae and Myrothamnaceae as two independent monofamilial orders. These three families are grouped by more synapomorphies (palmateveined, serrate or lobate leaves, deciduous and anemophilous plants)which may indicate their close phylogenetical affinity. A core group of the Hamamelidae includes ten families, among which the Hamamelidaceae originated earlier than the others, so that it is a relatively primitive family. The Betulaceae, Fagaceae and Myricaceae differentiated later than the Hamamelidaceae. The former two are very closely related, and thus thought to be two neighbouring orders by Takhtajan (1987)or included in the Fagales by Cronquist (1981, 1988)and Thorne (1983). The Myricaceae and Fagaceae are connected in the cladogram by only a single synapomorphy (endosperm absent), and therefore the close relationship does not exist between them. The Buxaceae, Simmondsiaceae and Daphniphyllaceae form an advanced group, in which they are weakly linked with each other by only one synapomorphy (pollen grains＜25μm). The Daphniphyllaceae is closely related to the Simmondsiaceae, but the Buxaceae is rather isolated. The Rhoipteleaceae and Juglandaceae share a number of synapomorphies (axile placentation, endosperm absent, embryo larger, fruit indehiscent) , forming a highly specialized group. The opinion that the Juglandales is composed of the Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae(Cronquist 1981; 1988, Lu et Zhang 1990)is confirmed by this analysis. A contrary point of view, which treated them as two distinct orders by Takhtajan (1987), apparently could not be accepted. The Casuarinaceae was regarded as the primitive angiosperm (Engler 1893), but in fact it is a highly reduced and specialized group. It is united with Rhoipteleaceae and Juglandaceae by four synapomorphies, i. e. placentation type, endosperm absent, embryo large and fruit indehiscent. However, the family presents six autapomorphies, and thus the position of the Casuarinaceae as an advanced family is confirmed by this analysis. Finally a strict consensus tree, which represents the phylogenetic relationships of thefamilies in the Hamamelidae, was given as a result of the analysis.     

Phylogenetic systematics of leaffishes (Teleostei: Polycentridae,Nandidae)

The Asian (nandid) and Afro‐Neotropical (polycentrid) leaffishes represent two superficially similar, but historically poorly diagnosed families – a situation resulting in a convoluted systematic history. Here, and including for the first time in a molecular study all leaffish genera, we generate a hypothesis of the phylogenetic history of both groups. We analyse a multilocus molecular data set encompassing 257 acanthomorph taxa, carry out a survey and assessment of selected osteological characters for the polycentrid leaffishes and also provide a reanalysis of previously published morphological data. Our results confirm: (1) that the Polycentridae and Nandidae are only remotely related, and hence, the classic leaffishes are diphyletic; (2) that the Polycentridae is monophyletic, with new skeletal synapomorphies being congruent with molecular data in placing the enigmatic Afronandus – a taxon that thus far has never been included in any molecular study – as sistergroup to the remaining genera; (3) the monophyly of the Nandidae + Badidae and their inclusion into a larger monophyletic group – along with the Pristolepididae, Anabantoidei and Channoidei – comprising the Labyrinthici sensu Rosen & Patterson. We also review the morphological and molecular evidence for both the conflicting placement of Pristolepis and the putative sistergroup relationship between the labyrinth fishes (Anabantoidei) and snakeheads (Channoidei).     

Phylogenetic systematics and biomecha cs in ecomorphology

Synopsis Research in all fields of biology increasingly uses phylogenetic systematics to interpret biological data in an evolutionary context. It is becoming widely accepted that comparative studies of the correlation of biological features, such as ecomorphological studies, must frame their analyses within the context of a phylogenetic hierarchy rather than treating each taxonomic unit as an independent replicate. Recent methods for the interpretation of ecological and functional data in the framework of a phylogeny can reveal the degree to which ecomorphological characters are correlated with one another, and are congruent with hierarchical cladistic groups. An example of the ecomorphology of labrid fishes is used here to illustrate the application of several of these methods. The structural design and mechanics of the jaws of labrids are tested for ecomorphological associations with the natural diets of these fishes. Methods for analysis of the correlated evolution of both discrete and continuous quantitative characters within a phylogeny are practiced on a single ecomorphological data set. Techniques used include character coding, character mapping, phylogenetic autocorrelation, independent contrasts, and squared change parsimony. These approaches to diverse biological data allow the study of ecomorphology to account for patterns of phylogenetic ancestry. Biomechanics or functional morphology also plays a vital role in the determination of ecomorphological relationships by clarifying the mechanisms by which morphologies can perform behaviors important to the organism's ecology. The synthesis of systematics with biomechanics is an example of interdisciplinary study in which information exchange can elucidate patterns of evolution in ecomorphology.     

Phylogenetic relationships among ferns and gymnosperms; an overview

Ferns and gymnosperms are two of the most important traditionally recognized groups of vascular plants, but both are unnatural when viewed in terms of phylogenetic systematics. That is to say that neither consists of a monophyletic group. Nevertheless, both continue to be recognized as informal groupings of plants because representatives of each have similar grades of structural and reproductive features, and because many aspects of their natural relationships remain equivocal. Monophylesis for some traditionally recognized groups of pteridophytes and gymnosperms is fairly well established, but is unresolved or highly suspect for others. The latter include fernssensu lato, filicalean ferns, seed ferns and coniferophytes. Some recent studies also question whether conifers represent an unnatural assemblage. However, a taxon that includes the Marsileales and Salviniales recently has been interpreted to be monophyletic. Comparisons of results from phylogenetic analyses using either morphological or molecular characters provide a basis for assessing the strengths of systematic hypotheses and suggest fruitful avenues for future study. It is clear from all approaches that the greatest impediment to resolution of phylogenetic relationships in the inadequate rate at which new data are being developed.     

Studies in the floral morphology and anatomy of nymphaeales

Floral morphology ofBrasenia schreberi Gmel. andCabomba caroliniana A. Gray was observed chiefly from an anatomical point of view. The receptacle ofB. schreberi is rather flat and a vascular plexus is observable in the mature flower. The vasculature in this plexus is so complex taht it is not easy to trace its structure in detail. by observation on small buds, it can be seen that the receptacular vasculature consists of a girdling bundle in the basal area and usually nine receptacular strands from which traces to the petals and stamens branch off. The vasculature in the receptacle is reconstructed and diagramatically shown as though split longitudinally and spread out in one plane. Floral vasculature inCabomba caroliniana is simpler, and is probably related to the smaller number of stamens and carpels. It also has a girdling bundle at the bottom of receptacle and this vasculature is suggested to be derived by simplification from aBrasenia-type vasculature. Evidence from floral anatomy suggests that these two genera are closely related. InNymphaea, a vascular plexus in the receptacle is also observed (Moseley, 1961; Ito 1983). The plexus ofBrasenia andNymphaea are not the same in their construction. Nevertheless, their fundamental floral vasculature is comparable and it is preferable to place them in the same family or same order.     

On the biochemical systematics of selected mammalian taxa: empirical comparison of qualitative and quantitative approaches in the evaluation of protein electrophoretic data

Empirical data sets of Artiodactyla (Antilocapridae, Bovidae, Cervidae, Suidae), Carnivora (Mustelidae) and Rodentia (Sciuridae, Cricetidae, Arvicolidae, Muridae), obtained by horizontal starch el electrophoresis of 15–34 isoenzyme sstems, were used to calculate genetic distances and to construct phylogenetic trees by the following methods: Nei's D (corrected for small sample sizes) - UPGMA, FITCH, KITSCH (out of Felsenstein's PHYLIP-package); Rogers -distance - distance-Wanger tree; maximum likelihood approach (cavalli -Sforza -Edwards ); maximum parsimony method (wagner ); Hennigian cladogram. The results were re-examined using the statisticar methods of jackknife and bootstrap. The following problems became apparent and were studied in more detail: inconstancy of molecular evolutionary rate among taxa, non-uniformity of evolutionary rate among isoenzymes, possible convergence of alloenzymes, different evolutionary histories of taxa (radiations/bottlenecks), methodological influences sample sizes / rare alleles, comparability of data sets). The results show, that many branches of the various phylogenetic trees are fairly constant. The ambiguous position of the remaining OTU's is due to insufficient evidence in the primary data rather than to theroperties of cluster algorithms. However, since these problematic cases are also uncertain in phylogenies based on morphological characters and palaeontological results, even an increased data set may not lead to a cyear decision unless additional taxa of crucial importance are examined. Molecular evolutionary rate among taxa seems to be accelerated in some cases, possibly due to random fixation of different alleles during bottlenecks, when a highly polymorpic ancestral form underwent a series of adaptive radiations. Isoenzymes can be divided into groups with different evolutionary rates. Thus, data sets are only comparable with respect to genetic variability and differentiation, when they contain a similar amount of representatives of each of these categories.     

中国慈姑属系统发育的研究

本文研究了中国慈姑属植物间的系统发育关系。选取了12个与该属系统发育有较重要关系的特征,将8个已知分类群与外类群刺果泽泻属进行了比较。应用数量分支分析的Farris-Wagner方法,建立了中国慈姑属系统发育分支图。讨论了各分类群间的系统发育关系、该属起源和数量分支分析方法等问题。     

Phylogenetic relationships of the stromateoid fishes (Perciformes)

The phylogenetic relationships of all 16 genera (plus Psenes pellucidus) of the suborder Stromateoidei were estimated cladistically based on 43 osteological, myological, and external characters. Thirty equally parsimonious trees were obtained. Based on the strict consensus tree, Centrolophidae was nonmonophyletic, Psenopsis being placed as a sister group of a clade comprising Amarsipus, Ariomma, nomeids, Tetragonurus, and stromateids. Schedophilus formed a sister group relationship with Seriolella. The relationships among the Centrolophus, Hyperoglyphe, Icichthys, Tubbia, Schedophilus+Seriolella clade, and Psenopsis+Amarsipus+Ariomma+nomeids+Tetragonurus+stromateids clade were unresolved. Amarsipus, which is unique within the suborder in lacking a pharyngeal sac, was nested within the stromateoid clade, being a sister group of the clade including Ariomma, nomeids, Tetragonurus, and stromateids. The absence of a pharyngeal sac in Amarsipus was interpreted as a reversal, its presence in the Stromateoidei therefore being considered as a synapomorphy. Ariomma was placed as the sister group of a clade comprising nomeids, Tetragonurus, and stromateids. Monophyly of the Nomeidae and Stromateidae were supported by 2 and 11 synapomorphies, respectively.     

中国小蜂科属间系统发育关系分析(膜翅目:小蜂科)

利用Hennig86程序的nelsen合意和Phylip程序的多数规则合意2种支序分析方法,探讨了中国小蜂科的系统发育关系。基于中国21属的30个性状,计算得到2个合意树,其分类系统与传统分类系统基本保持一致。在进化关系和亲缘关系上表现为:小蜂属(Chalcis)、卡诺小蜂属(Conura)、大腿小蜂属(Brachymeria)和脊柄小蜂属(Epitranus)相对最为原始,而泰内小蜂属(Tainaniella)和背突小蜂属(Oxycoryphe)相对最为进化,前者和后者之间的亲缘关系最远;亲缘关系最近的有:泰内小蜂属(Tainaniella)和背突小蜂属(Oxycoryphe),泊卡小蜂属(Proconura)和日本小蜂属(Nipponochalcidia),小蜂属(Chalcis)和卡诺小蜂属(Conura)以及细尾小蜂属(Megalocolus)和三角小蜂属(Trigonura),它们分别构成姊妹群关系。     

Systematics of naviculoid diatoms (Bacillariophyta): A preliminary analysis of protoplast and frustule characters for family and order level classification

The relationships between 49 naviculoid diatoms, currently arranged in 14 families and four orders were investigated using cladistic analysis in order to test the types of characters used in diatom systematics and to assess how well the current classification reflects possible phylogenetic relationships in this group. Some of the families and orders comprise taxa with different protoplast characters, or taxa with similar protoplast arrangements are placed in separate families or orders. Therefore as both cell wall and protoplast characters were used, three analyses were undertaken; total data, protoplast data and frustule data. The analyses support the recognition of the Mastogloiales (unequivocally) and the Cymbellales (largely) but indicate that some of the familial groupings are more ambiguous. The members of the Berkeleyaceae, Berkeleya, Parlibellus and Climaconeis, were never grouped together and Achnanthes brevipes never grouped with the other monoraphid diatoms, but usually with members of the Mastogloiales (total and protoplast data). Similarly, Round et al.’s familial groupings within the Cymbellales do not emerge from our analyses. Our results support the hypothesis that monoraphid genera have arisen independently from different naviculoid diatoms, and that Achnanthes sensu stricto should be transferred to the Mastogloiales. Some of the problems associated with incomplete information and inaccurate terminology are discussed briefly.