结核分枝杆菌ESX分泌系统研究进展

在结核分枝杆菌中存在能够使某些蛋白通过其高度疏水和通透性极差的细胞壁的分泌系统,其中ESX-1分泌系统负责ESAT-6（early secreted antigenic target of 6 kD）和CFP-10（culture filtrate protein of 10kD）的分泌．这两种蛋白能够形成1：1的二聚体结构,并且是结核分枝杆菌重要的毒力因子．近年来陆续发现其他一些蛋白也由ESX-1分泌系统所分泌．在结核分枝杆菌中还存在其他4种类似ESX-1的分泌系统ESX-2～ESX-5．ESX分泌系统也在其他革兰氏阳性菌和放线菌中被发现,有学者按照公认的术语称其为Ⅶ型分泌系统．本文综述了结核分枝杆菌ESX分泌系统的组成和分子机制,以及分泌蛋白与宿主的相互作用等方面的研究进展．     

结核分枝杆菌RD-1区编码蛋白的结构和功能

RD-1(region of difference-1)被认为在结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis,MTB)的致病机理中起着关键的作用．RD-1基因全长9.5 kb,开放读码框从Rv3871～Rv3879c,分别编码9种不同的蛋白质．RD-1区在卡介苗(bacillus Calmette-Guerin,BCG)中是缺失的．研究结果显示,RD-1区是结核分枝杆菌的主要毒力因素之一,同时RD-1区参与了一种新的分泌系统ESX-1,这种分泌系统能够促进某些特定蛋白的分泌．ESX-1分泌的两种主要蛋白质CFP-10 (culture filtrate protein of 10 ku)和ESAT-6 (early secreted antigenic target of 6 ku)能够形成牢固的1∶1的复合体,这两种蛋白质能够协同分泌而且能够引起T细胞反应,并可能作为理想的靶抗原在结核的预防和诊断中发挥作用．     

分枝杆菌分泌系统

分泌系统对于具有特殊细胞被膜结构的分枝杆菌,尤其是致病性分枝杆菌的存活和毒力非常重要.不少重要的致病因子或存活因子都通过特定的分泌系统进入环境,包括宿主体内.本文从分泌系统的基因、结构组成、分泌底物、转运机制及其与致病菌毒力的关系等几个方面介绍了分枝杆菌(mycobacteria)通用型分泌系统(general secretion pathway,SecA1)、替代型分泌系统(accessory Sec system,SecA2)、双精氨酸分泌系统(twin-arginine translocation,Tat)和Ⅶ型分泌系统(typeⅦsecretion systems,T7S system or ESX)4种分泌系统,并重点分析了Tat分泌系统.这些知识有利于从分泌系统及其底物的角度揭示结核分枝杆菌等胞内致病菌存活和逃避宿主免疫的机理,将为研发新的结核病控制措施提供依据.     

结核分枝杆菌毒力的研究进展

结核分枝杆菌可以在人体内缓慢增殖,释放代谢产物,造成细胞损伤,引起结核病。其致病机制可能与其复杂的细胞壁成分密切相关。结核分枝杆菌细胞壁中的脂质、糖类及蛋白类物质在构成屏障结构,保护并辅助结核分枝杆菌在细胞内的生长及迁移,调节宿主免疫应答,造成宿主组织细胞损伤等方面发挥重要生物学作用。其表达受众多基因的精细调控。本文将对结核分枝杆菌细胞壁中的脂质阿拉伯甘露聚糖和分枝菌酸在其毒力中的作用,以及sig基因对毒力的调节作用作一综述。     

茄科雷尔氏菌的蛋白分泌系统及其特征

茄科雷尔氏菌利用自身的分泌系统能向胞外分泌上百种蛋白, 其中Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型分泌系统通过不同机制将分泌蛋白靶定到胞外或宿主细胞, 是决定茄科雷尔氏菌对宿主产生致病性的主要因素。其中Ⅲ型分泌系统不依赖Sec信号转导系统但必须依赖于宿主细胞的识别激活, 并在病原菌对宿主细胞的特异性识别和细菌在宿主细胞的生长增殖中发挥功能。到目前为止, 已经从茄科雷尔氏菌的GMI1000株系中鉴定出两类在宿主细胞中存在靶标, 并由Ⅲ型分泌系统分泌的效应蛋白Pop2和Gala蛋白家族。主要就茄科雷尔氏菌Ⅲ型分泌系统的基本特征以及效应蛋白及其宿主靶标的相互作用进行综述。     

一个细菌的致命之旅——嗜肺军团菌分泌系统及效应蛋白的研究进展

嗜肺军团菌是引起军团菌肺炎以及庞蒂亚克热的革兰氏阴性胞内病原细菌,嗜肺军团菌侵染宿主的主要特点是可以通过其IVB型毒力分泌系统,向宿主细胞内分泌超过150种的底物效应蛋白。通过这些效应蛋白的作用,嗜肺军团菌能够调整宿主细胞的胞内运输途径,改变内外环境来伪装自己的吞噬泡,干扰宿主的细胞周期,抑制宿主细胞的凋亡,从而有效逃避宿主细胞的防御功能,创造出理想的胞内增殖环境。最后,效应蛋白还可以帮助军团菌从宿主细胞中逃逸。目前,嗜肺军团菌已经成为"病原菌-宿主相互作用"的重要研究模型,其毒力分泌系统及其底物效应蛋白的功能也成为细胞微生物学的研究热点。对嗜肺军团菌分泌系统及效应蛋白的研究不仅能够帮助阐明病原细菌的致病机理,还有助于推动对宿主免疫机制的更深层次的研究。文章主要针对嗜肺军团菌的毒力分泌系统,尤其是IVB型分泌系统的结构和功能,以及底物效应蛋白的研究进展进行了综述,向读者展示出一个小小的细菌所拥有的那令人惊叹的、如此狡猾的生存策略和它精致的杀伤武器。     

分枝杆菌膜蛋白相关抗结核药物靶标的研究进展

结核病是由结核分枝杆菌引起的慢性传染病。当前结核病耐药等问题愈加严重,基于新靶点的抗结核新药研发也变得尤为重要。分枝杆菌膜蛋白是镶嵌于细胞膜磷脂双层或与脂双层结合的一类蛋白,参与细胞结构合成、物质跨膜转运、催化等重要的生物学功能,并在宿主感染中参与免疫识别、免疫逃逸、毒力因子释放等致病机制。另一方面,膜蛋白具有特定的拓扑结构和细胞定位,药物靶标可及性强,因此膜蛋白是抗结核药物作用的理想靶标。本文就分枝杆菌膜蛋白在细胞壁合成、物质跨膜转运、细菌休眠、细菌与宿主互作及分泌系统相关研究进展进行综述,旨在为抗结核药物研发提供新思路。     

Ⅲ型分泌系统分子伴侣研究进展

Ⅲ型分泌系统广泛存在于革兰氏阴性致病菌中。通过Ⅲ型分泌系统 ,耶尔森氏菌属、沙门氏菌属、福氏志贺氏菌等革兰氏阴性致病菌注射毒力因子到宿主细胞中 ,被注入的细菌毒力蛋白在宿主细胞中刺激或干扰宿主细胞的代谢过程 ,支配细菌与宿主细胞的相互作用 ,从而引起诸如鼠疫、伤寒、痢疾等许多疾病。Ⅲ型分泌系统分子伴侣在帮助毒力蛋白分泌的过程中起到重要作用。尽管发现Ⅲ型分泌系统分子伴侣至今已近十年 ,但其具体的功能仍不清楚。从分类、功能、与相应底物作用的特点等方面对Ⅲ型分泌系统分子伴侣的研究进展作一简单介绍     

基于蛋白质跨外膜自转运系统的细菌细胞表面蛋白展示技术研究进展

革兰氏阴性菌Ⅴ型分泌系统是细菌病原蛋白分泌的主要途径之一,可分为Ⅴa-Ⅴe5个亚型,其中Ⅴa型(即经典的单体自转运蛋白)是细菌毒力和黏附因子向细胞外分泌的重要工具,其在内膜Sec易位子和外膜BAM蛋白复合体的协助下,通过2个连续的跨膜步骤介导蛋白质穿过阴性菌的内外膜.据信Va型是目前已知蛋白质跨膜转运时最简单的分泌途径...     

细菌Ⅶ型分泌系统的研究进展

细菌分泌系统参与细菌物质转运,是细菌蛋白或DNA胞外分泌的重要途径,与细菌的生长和致病性密切相关。迄今为止,已发现了Ⅰ～Ⅶ型分泌系统。Ⅰ～Ⅵ型分泌系统存在于革兰阴性菌中,其中Ⅳ型也存在于革兰阳性菌中;Ⅶ型则存在于革兰阳性菌中。Ⅶ型分泌系统是近年来发现的一种特殊分泌系统,能介导病原微生物毒力蛋白分泌,与宿主相互作用,并参与细菌体内锌铁平衡等,在革兰阳性菌的生长代谢及致病过程中发挥重要作用。本文综述细菌Ⅶ型分泌系统的类型、功能及表达调控,以增进对这一新型细菌蛋白分泌机制的认识。     

A mycobacterium ESX-1-secreted virulence factor with unique requirements for export

Specialized secretion systems of pathogenic bacteria commonly transport multiple effectors that act in concert to control and exploit the host cell as a replication-permissive niche. Both the Mycobacterium marinum and the Mycobacterium tuberculosis genomes contain an extended region of difference 1 (extRD1) locus that encodes one such pathway, the early secretory antigenic target 6 (ESAT-6) system 1 (ESX-1) secretion apparatus. ESX-1 is required for virulence and for secretion of the proteins ESAT-6, culture filtrate protein 10 (CFP-10), and EspA. Here, we show that both Rv3881c and its M. marinum homolog, Mh3881c, are secreted proteins, and disruption of RD1 in either organism blocks secretion. We have renamed the Rv3881c/Mh3881c gene espB for ESX-1 substrate protein B. Secretion of M. marinum EspB (EspBM) requires both the Mh3879c and Mh3871 genes within RD1, while CFP-10 secretion is not affected by disruption of Mh3879c. In contrast, disruption of Mh3866 or Mh3867 within the extRD1 locus prevents CFP-10 secretion without effect on EspBM. Mutants that fail to secrete only EspBM or only CFP-10 are less attenuated in macrophages than mutants failing to secrete both substrates. EspBM physically interacts with Mh3879c; the M. tuberculosis homolog, EspBT, physically interacts with Rv3879c; and mutants of EspBM that fail to bind Mh3879c fail to be secreted. We also found interaction between Rv3879c and Rv3871, a component of the ESX-1 machine, suggesting a mechanism for the secretion of EspB. The results establish EspB as a substrate of ESX-1 that is required for virulence and growth in macrophages and suggests that the contribution of ESX-1 to virulence may arise from the secretion of multiple independent substrates.     

Phenotypic Profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis EspA Point Mutants Reveals that Blockage of ESAT-6 and CFP-10 Secretion In Vitro Does Not Always Correlate with Attenuation of Virulence

The EspA protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is essential for the type VII ESX-1 protein secretion apparatus, which delivers the principal virulence factors ESAT-6 and CFP-10. In this study, site-directed mutagenesis of EspA was performed to elucidate its influence on the ESX-1 system. Replacing Trp⁵⁵ (W55) or Gly⁵⁷ (G57) residues in the putative W-X-G motif of EspA with arginines impaired ESAT-6 and CFP-10 secretion in vitro and attenuated M. tuberculosis. Replacing the Phe⁵⁰ (F50) and Lys⁶² (K62) residues, which flank the W-X-G motif, with arginine and alanine, respectively, destabilized EspA, abolished ESAT-6 and CFP-10 secretion in vitro, and attenuated M. tuberculosis. Likewise, replacing the Phe⁵ (F5) and Lys⁴¹ (K41) residues with arginine and alanine, respectively, also destabilized EspA and blocked ESAT-6 and CFP-10 secretion in vitro. However, these two particular mutations did not attenuate M. tuberculosis in cellular models of infection or during acute infection in mice. We have thus identified amino acid residues in EspA that are important for facilitating ESAT-6 and CFP-10 secretion and virulence. However, our data also indicate for the first time that blockage of M. tuberculosis ESAT-6 and CFP-10 secretion in vitro and attenuation are mutually exclusive.     

Structure of the Mycosin-1 Protease from the Mycobacterial ESX-1 Protein Type VII Secretion System

Mycobacteria use specialized type VII (ESX) secretion systems to export proteins across their complex cell walls. Mycobacterium tuberculosis encodes five nonredundant ESX secretion systems, with ESX-1 being particularly important to disease progression. All ESX loci encode extracellular membrane-bound proteases called mycosins (MycP) that are essential to secretion and have been shown to be involved in processing of type VII-exported proteins. Here, we report the first x-ray crystallographic structure of MycP1(24–407) to 1.86 Å, defining a subtilisin-like fold with a unique N-terminal extension previously proposed to function as a propeptide for regulation of enzyme activity. The structure reveals that this N-terminal extension shows no structural similarity to previously characterized protease propeptides and instead wraps intimately around the catalytic domain where, tethered by a disulfide bond, it forms additional interactions with a unique extended loop that protrudes from the catalytic core. We also show MycP1 cleaves the ESX-1 secreted protein EspB from both M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis at a homologous cut site in vitro.     

Lipid metabolism and Type VII secretion systems dominate the genome scale virulence profile of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human dendritic cells

Background

Mycobacterium tuberculosis continues to kill more people than any other bacterium. Although its archetypal host cell is the macrophage, it also enters, and survives within, dendritic cells (DCs). By modulating the behaviour of the DC, M. tuberculosis is able to manipulate the host’s immune response and establish an infection. To identify the M. tuberculosis genes required for survival within DCs we infected primary human DCs with an M. tuberculosis transposon library and identified mutations with a reduced ability to survive.

Results

Parallel sequencing of the transposon inserts of the surviving mutants identified a large number of genes as being required for optimal intracellular fitness in DCs. Loci whose mutation attenuated intracellular survival included those involved in synthesising cell wall lipids, not only the well-established virulence factors, pDIM and cord factor, but also sulfolipids and PGL, which have not previously been identified as having a direct virulence role in cells. Other attenuated loci included the secretion systems ESX-1, ESX-2 and ESX-4, alongside many PPE genes, implicating a role for ESX-5. In contrast the canonical ESAT-6 family of ESX substrates did not have intra-DC fitness costs suggesting an alternative ESX-1 associated virulence mechanism. With the aid of a gene-nutrient interaction model, metabolic processes such as cholesterol side chain catabolism, nitrate reductase and cysteine-methionine metabolism were also identified as important for survival in DCs.

Conclusion

We conclude that many of the virulence factors required for survival in DC are shared with macrophages, but that survival in DCs also requires several additional functions, such as cysteine-methionine metabolism, PGLs, sulfolipids, ESX systems and PPE genes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1569-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

ESX-1 secreted virulence factors are recognized by multiple cytosolic AAA ATPases in pathogenic mycobacteria

The ESX-1 secretion system of Mycobacterium tuberculosis delivers bacterial virulence factors to host cells during infection. The most abundant factor, the ESAT-6/CFP-10 dimer, is targeted for secretion via a C-terminal signal sequence on CFP-10 that is recognized by the cytosolic ATPase, Rv3871. However, the selection determinants for other ESX-1 substrates appear to be more complex. Some substrates, such as ESAT-6, are secreted despite lacking signal sequences. Furthermore, all substrates require targeting of the other ESX-1 secreted proteins, a distinguishing feature of this system. How ESX-1 substrates are selected and the basis for co-dependent secretion is unknown. Here we show that the EspC substrate interacts with Rv3868, a cytosolic AAA ATPase, through its C-terminus. Swapping the C-termini of EspC and CFP-10 revealed that these signals are functionally distinct, suggesting that the proteins are targeted via interactions with different ATPases. Surprisingly, biochemical purification experiments demonstrate that these substrates and ATPases form multi-protein complexes inside the cell and identified a new secreted substrate. By interfering with this protein interaction network, we have partially uncoupled co-dependent substrate secretion. Our results suggest that proper functioning of the ESX-1 pathway requires the interaction of multiple ESX-1 substrates and components prior to their secretion. Ultimately, understanding the details of ESX-1 targeting may allow for engineering of better vaccines to prevent tuberculosis.     

A unique Mycobacterium ESX-1 protein co-secretes with CFP-10/ESAT-6 and is necessary for inhibiting phagosome maturation

The ESX-1 secretion system plays a critical role in the virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. marinum. To date, three proteins are known to be secreted by ESX-1 and necessary for virulence, two of which are CFP-10 and ESAT-6. The ESX-1 secretion and the virulence mechanisms are not well understood. In this study, we have examined the M. marinum secretomes and identified four proteins specific to ESX-1. Two of those are CFP-10 and ESAT-6, and the other two are novel: MM1553 (homologous to Rv3483c) and Mh3881c (homologous to Rv3881c). We have shown that Mh3881c, CFP-10 and ESAT-6 are co-dependent for secretion. Mh3881c is being cleaved at close to the C-terminus during secretion, and the C-terminal portion is critical to the co-dependent secretion, the ESAT-6 cellular levels, and interaction with ESAT-6. The co-dependent secretion is required for M. marinum intracellular growth in macrophages, where the Mh3881c C-terminal portion plays a critical role. The role of the co-dependent secretion in intracellular growth correlates with its role in inhibiting phagosome maturation. Both the secretion and the virulence defects of the Mh3881c mutant are complemented by Mh3881c or its M. tuberculosis homologue Rv3881c, suggesting that in M. tuberculosis, Rv3881c has similar functions.     

Mycobacterium tuberculosis EspB binds phospholipids and mediates EsxA‐independent virulence

The type‐VII ESX‐1 secretion apparatus, encoded by the esx‐1 genetic locus, is essential for the export of EsxA and EsxB, two major virulence factors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ESX‐1 also requires the products of the unlinked espACD operon for optimal function and these proteins are considered integral parts of the secretion apparatus. Here we show that the espACD operon is not necessary for the secretion of EspB, another ESX‐1 substrate, and this unimpeded secretion of EspB is associated with significant residual virulence. Upon further investigation, we found that purified EspB can facilitate M. tb virulence even in the absence of EsxA and EsxB, and may do so by binding the bioactive phospholipids phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylserine, both of which are potent bioactive molecules with prominent roles in eukaryotic cell signalling. Our findings provide new insights into the impact of the espACD operon on the ESX‐1 apparatus and reveal a distinct virulence function for EspB with novel implications in M. tb‐host interactions.     

A Novel ESX-1 Locus Reveals that Surface-Associated ESX-1 Substrates Mediate Virulence in Mycobacterium marinum

EsxA (ESAT-6) and EsxB (CFP-10) are virulence factors exported by the ESX-1 system in mycobacterial pathogens. In Mycobacterium marinum, an established model for ESX-1 secretion in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, genes required for ESX-1 export reside at the extended region of difference 1 (RD1) locus. In this study, a novel locus required for ESX-1 export in M. marinum was identified outside the RD1 locus. An M. marinum strain bearing a transposon-insertion between the MMAR_1663 and MMAR_1664 genes exhibited smooth-colony morphology, was deficient for ESX-1 export, was nonhemolytic, and was attenuated for virulence. Genetic complementation revealed a restoration of colony morphology and a partial restoration of virulence in cell culture models. Yet hemolysis and the export of ESX-1 substrates into the bacteriological medium in vitro as measured by both immunoblotting and quantitative proteomics were not restored. We show that genetic complementation of the transposon insertion strain partially restored the translocation of EsxA and EsxB to the mycobacterial cell surface. Our findings indicate that the export of EsxA and EsxB to the cell surface, rather than secretion into the bacteriological medium, correlates with virulence in M. marinum. Together, these findings not only expand the known genetic loci required for ESX-1 secretion in M. marinum but also provide an explanation for the observed disparity between in vitro ESX-1 export and virulence.     

The ESAT-6 Protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Interacts with Beta-2-Microglobulin (β2M) Affecting Antigen Presentation Function of Macrophage

ESAT-6, an abundantly secreted protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is an important virulence factor, inactivation of which leads to reduced virulence of M. tuberculosis. ESAT-6 alone, or in complex with its chaperone CFP-10 (ESAT-6:CFP-10), is known to modulate host immune responses; however, the detailed mechanisms are not well understood. The structure of ESAT-6 or ESAT-6:CFP-10 complex does not suggest presence of enzymatic or DNA-binding activities. Therefore, we hypothesized that the crucial role played by ESAT-6 in the virulence of mycobacteria could be due to its interaction with some host cellular factors. Using a yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified that ESAT-6 interacts with the host protein beta-2-microglobulin (β2M), which was further confirmed by other assays, like GST pull down, co-immunoprecipitation and surface plasmon resonance. The C-terminal six amino acid residues (90–95) of ESAT-6 were found to be essential for this interaction. ESAT-6, in complex with CFP-10, also interacts with β2M. We found that ESAT-6/ESAT-6:CFP-10 can enter into the endoplasmic reticulum where it sequesters β2M to inhibit cell surface expression of MHC-I-β2M complexes, resulting in downregulation of class I-mediated antigen presentation. Interestingly, the ESAT-6:β2M complex could be detected in pleural biopsies of individuals suffering from pleural tuberculosis. Our data highlight a novel mechanism by which M. tuberculosis may undermine the host adaptive immune responses to establish a successful infection. Identification of such novel interactions may help us in designing small molecule inhibitors as well as effective vaccine design against tuberculosis.