Auxin Depletion from the Leaf Axil Conditions Competence for Axillary Meristem Formation in Arabidopsis and Tomato

The enormous variation in architecture of flowering plants is based to a large extent on their ability to form new axes of growth throughout their life span. Secondary growth is initiated from groups of pluripotent cells, called meristems, which are established in the axils of leaves. Such meristems form lateral organs and develop into a side shoot or a flower, depending on the developmental status of the plant and environmental conditions. The phytohormone auxin is well known to play an important role in inhibiting the outgrowth of axillary buds, a phenomenon known as apical dominance. However, the role of auxin in the process of axillary meristem formation is largely unknown. In this study, we show in the model species Arabidopsis thaliana and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) that auxin is depleted from leaf axils during vegetative development. Disruption of polar auxin transport compromises auxin depletion from the leaf axil and axillary meristem initiation. Ectopic auxin biosynthesis in leaf axils interferes with axillary meristem formation, whereas repression of auxin signaling in polar auxin transport mutants can largely rescue their branching defects. These results strongly suggest that depletion of auxin from leaf axils is a prerequisite for axillary meristem formation during vegetative development.     

The Stem Cell Niche in Leaf Axils Is Established by Auxin and Cytokinin in Arabidopsis

Plants differ from most animals in their ability to initiate new cycles of growth and development, which relies on the establishment and activity of branch meristems harboring new stem cell niches. In seed plants, this is achieved by axillary meristems, which are established in the axil of each leaf base and develop into lateral branches. Here, we describe the initial processes of Arabidopsis thaliana axillary meristem initiation. Using reporter gene expression analysis, we find that axillary meristems initiate from leaf axil cells with low auxin through stereotypical stages. Consistent with this, ectopic overproduction of auxin in the leaf axil efficiently inhibits axillary meristem initiation. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that auxin efflux is required for the leaf axil auxin minimum and axillary meristem initiation. After lowering of auxin levels, a subsequent cytokinin signaling pulse is observed prior to axillary meristem initiation. Genetic analysis suggests that cytokinin perception and signaling are both required for axillary meristem initiation. Finally, we show that cytokinin overproduction in the leaf axil partially rescue axillary meristem initiation-deficient mutants. These results define a mechanistic framework for understanding axillary meristem initiation.     

Auxin efflux transporter MtPIN10 regulates compound leaf and flower development in Medicago truncatula

Plant diversity in nature is to a large extent reflected by morphological diversity of their leaves. Both simple and dissected (with multiple blades or leaflets) leaves are initiated from shoot apical meristem (SAM) in a highly ordered fashion. Similarly, development of leaflets from leaf marginal meristem (marginal blastozone) is also highly ordered. How morphological diversity of plant leaves is regulated remains an important topic of studies on plant form evolution. Here, we describe isolation and characterization of loss-of-function mutants of auxin efflux transporter MtPIN10 of a legume species, Medicago truncatula. Mtpin10 mutants exhibit defects in diverse developmental processes including leaf and leaflet development. Cross species genetic complementation demonstrates that MtPIN10 and Arabidopsis PIN1 are functional orthologs. Double mutant analyses reveal complex genetic interactions between MtPIN10 and Medicago SINGLE LEAFLET1 (SGL1) and CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON2 (MtCUC2), three regulatory genes involved in developmental processes including dissected leaf and flower development.Key words: auxin, auxin transport, compound leaf development, MtPIN10, SGL1, MtCUC2, Medicago truncatula     

The auxin influx carrier is essential for correct leaf positioning

Auxin is of vital importance in virtually every aspect of plant growth and development, yet, even after almost a century of intense study, major gaps in our knowledge of its synthesis, distribution, perception, and signal transduction remain. One unique property of auxin is its polar transport, which in many well-documented cases is a critical part of its mode of action. Auxin is actively transported through the action of both influx and efflux carriers. Inhibition of polar transport by the efflux inhibitor N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) causes a complete cessation of leaf initiation, a defect that can be reversed by local application of the auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), to the responsive zone of the shoot apical meristem. In this study, we address the role of the auxin influx carrier in the positioning and outgrowth of leaf primordia at the shoot apical meristem of tomato. By using a combination of transport inhibitors and synthetic auxins, we demonstrate that interference with auxin influx has little effect on organ formation as such, but prevents proper localization of leaf primordia. These results suggest the existence of functional auxin concentration gradients in the shoot apical meristem that are actively set up and maintained by the action of efflux and influx carriers. We propose a model in which efflux carriers control auxin delivery to the shoot apical meristem, whereas influx and efflux carriers regulate auxin distribution within the meristem.     

Studies of aberrant phyllotaxy1 Mutants of Maize Indicate Complex Interactions between Auxin and Cytokinin Signaling in the Shoot Apical Meristem

One of the most fascinating aspects of plant morphology is the regular geometric arrangement of leaves and flowers, called phyllotaxy. The shoot apical meristem (SAM) determines these patterns, which vary depending on species and developmental stage. Auxin acts as an instructive signal in leaf initiation, and its transport has been implicated in phyllotaxy regulation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Altered phyllotactic patterns are observed in a maize (Zea mays) mutant, aberrant phyllotaxy1 (abph1, also known as abphyl1), and ABPH1 encodes a cytokinin-inducible type A response regulator, suggesting that cytokinin signals are also involved in the mechanism by which phyllotactic patterns are established. Therefore, we investigated the interaction between auxin and cytokinin signaling in phyllotaxy. Treatment of maize shoots with a polar auxin transport inhibitor, 1-naphthylphthalamic acid, strongly reduced ABPH1 expression, suggesting that auxin or its polar transport is required for ABPH1 expression. Immunolocalization of the PINFORMED1 (PIN1) polar auxin transporter revealed that PIN1 expression marks leaf primordia in maize, similarly to Arabidopsis. Interestingly, maize PIN1 expression at the incipient leaf primordium was greatly reduced in abph1 mutants. Consistently, auxin levels were reduced in abph1, and the maize PIN1 homolog was induced not only by auxin but also by cytokinin treatments. Our results indicate distinct roles for ABPH1 as a negative regulator of SAM size and a positive regulator of PIN1 expression. These studies highlight a complex interaction between auxin and cytokinin signaling in the specification of phyllotactic patterns and suggest an alternative model for the generation of altered phyllotactic patterns in abph1 mutants. We propose that reduced auxin levels and PIN1 expression in abph1 mutant SAMs delay leaf initiation, contributing to the enlarged SAM and altered phyllotaxy of these mutants.     

The Arabidopsis MAX pathway controls shoot branching by regulating auxin transport

BACKGROUND: Plants achieve remarkable plasticity in shoot system architecture by regulating the activity of secondary shoot meristems, laid down in the axil of each leaf. Axillary meristem activity, and hence shoot branching, is regulated by a network of interacting hormonal signals that move through the plant. Among these, auxin, moving down the plant in the main stem, indirectly inhibits axillary bud outgrowth, and an as yet undefined hormone, the synthesis of which in Arabidopsis requires MAX1, MAX3, and MAX4, moves up the plant and also inhibits shoot branching. Since the axillary buds of max4 mutants are resistant to the inhibitory effects of apically supplied auxin, auxin and the MAX-dependent hormone must interact to inhibit branching. RESULTS: Here we show that the resistance of max mutant buds to apically supplied auxin is largely independent of the known, AXR1-mediated, auxin signal transduction pathway. Instead, it is caused by increased capacity for auxin transport in max primary stems, which show increased expression of PIN auxin efflux facilitators. The max phenotype is dependent on PIN1 activity, but it is independent of flavonoids, which are known regulators of PIN-dependent auxin transport. CONCLUSIONS: The MAX-dependent hormone is a novel regulator of auxin transport. Modulation of auxin transport in the stem is sufficient to regulate bud outgrowth, independent of AXR1-mediated auxin signaling. We therefore propose an additional mechanism for long-range signaling by auxin in which bud growth is regulated by competition between auxin sources for auxin transport capacity in the primary stem.     

Flux-based transport enhancement as a plausible unifying mechanism for auxin transport in meristem development

Plants continuously generate new organs through the activity of populations of stem cells called meristems. The shoot apical meristem initiates leaves, flowers, and lateral meristems in highly ordered, spiralled, or whorled patterns via a process called phyllotaxis. It is commonly accepted that the active transport of the plant hormone auxin plays a major role in this process. Current hypotheses propose that cellular hormone transporters of the PIN family would create local auxin maxima at precise positions, which in turn would lead to organ initiation. To explain how auxin transporters could create hormone fluxes to distinct regions within the plant, different concepts have been proposed. A major hypothesis, canalization, proposes that the auxin transporters act by amplifying and stabilizing existing fluxes, which could be initiated, for example, by local diffusion. This convincingly explains the organised auxin fluxes during vein formation, but for the shoot apical meristem a second hypothesis was proposed, where the hormone would be systematically transported towards the areas with the highest concentrations. This implies the coexistence of two radically different mechanisms for PIN allocation in the membrane, one based on flux sensing and the other on local concentration sensing. Because these patterning processes require the interaction of hundreds of cells, it is impossible to estimate on a purely intuitive basis if a particular scenario is plausible or not. Therefore, computational modelling provides a powerful means to test this type of complex hypothesis. Here, using a dedicated computer simulation tool, we show that a flux-based polarization hypothesis is able to explain auxin transport at the shoot meristem as well, thus providing a unifying concept for the control of auxin distribution in the plant. Further experiments are now required to distinguish between flux-based polarization and other hypotheses.     

Induction of Zygotic Polyembryos in Wheat: Influence of Auxin Polar Transport

The effects of two auxin polar transport inhibitors, N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) and 3,3[prime],4[prime],5,7-pentahydroxyflavone (quercetin), on attaining bilateral symmetry from radial symmetry during early wheat embryogenesis were investigated by using an in vitro culture system. Although NPA and quercetin belong to two different classes of auxin transport inhibitors, the phytotropins and the flavonoids, respectively, they induced the same specific abnormal phenotypes during embryo development. These abnormal embryos differentiated multiple meristems (i.e., multiple shoot and root meristems) and multiple organs (i.e., multiple coleoptiles and scutella). Multiple shoot apical meristem phenotypes were characterized by partly multiplied embryonic axes and supernumerary scutella. The differentiation of multiple primary roots in addition to multiple shoot meristems and multiple scutella led to the formation of polyembryos. The occurrence of multiple shoot meristem phenotypes depended on the concentration of the inhibitor and the developmental stage of the isolated embryo. Embryos treated with NPA or quercetin developed multiple radicle phenotypes less frequently than they developed multiple shoot meristem phenotypes. Our observations suggest that the root meristem differentiates later than the shoot meristem. Our data support the hypothesis that polar transport of auxin has a determining influence on the differentiation of the embryonic axis and the scutellum.     

CHANGES IN EPILOBIUM PHYLLOTAXY INDUCED BY N-1-NAPHTHYLPHTHALAMIC ACID AND α-4-CHLOROPHENOXYISOBUTYRIC ACID

Preliminary studies establishing relationships between leaf plastochron index and Epilobium hirsutum L. shoot growth provide a method for rigorous selection of plants utilized in experiments designed to test the working hypothesis that endogenous auxin gradient interactions are factors of phyllotactic control in this species. Application of N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), an auxin transport inhibitor, to one of the youngest bijugate primordia on the shoot meristem results in increased growth of the treated primordium. Fasciation between the treated primordium and one of the next primordia to be initiated alters relative vertical spacing of primordia. Angular shifts between subsequent primordia result in spiral transformation of Epilobium bijugate phyllotaxy. Application of α-4-chlorophenoxyisobutyric acid (CPIB), an auxin antagonist, to one of the youngest bijugate primordia on the shoot meristem results in decreased growth of the treated primordium that alters both radial and vertical spacing of primordia. This is followed by angular shifts between subsequent primordia resulting in spiral transformation of the bijugate phyllotaxy. Changes in the growth parameters of NPA- and CPIB-treated shoots are similar. Relative plastochron rates of radial and vertical shoot growth of induced spiral shoots are about half those of lanolin paste control shoots, as are the plastochrons and relative plastochron rates of leaf elongation. Treated shoot meristems have eccentricities of 0.5 as compared to bijugate control meristem eccentricities of 0.7. No significant difference is apparent between basal transverse areas of treated and control shoot meristems. The relative chronological rates of growth of treated shoots are not significantly different from those rates of control shoots. Spiral transformation results from changes in relative positions of leaf primordia insertion on the shoot meristem, not from changes in growth of treated shoots. These changes are accompanied by an increased rate of leaf initiation on a more circular shoot meristem. Existing theoretical models of phyllotaxy are discussed in relation to these chemically induced changes of Epilobium leaf arrangement.     

Knockdown of OsHox33, a member of the class III homeodomain-leucine zipper gene family, accelerates leaf senescence in rice

The class III homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip III) gene family plays important roles in plant growth and development, including regulation of apical embryo patterning, embryonic shoot meristem formation, leaf polarity, vascular development, and meristem function, with a particularly crucial function in leaf development. Although HD-Zip III members are highly conserved in land plants, previous studies, such as genetic analyses based on multiple mutants in Arabidopsis and other plants, suggest that various HD-Zip III family genes have evolved with distinct functions and pleiotropic effects on plant growth and development. In this study, we analyzed a HD-Zip III member, OsHox33, and demonstrated that it plays an important role in age-dependent leaf senescence in rice. We constructed two specific RNAi vectors derived from the 5′-end region and 3′-UTR of OsHox33 to knockdown its expression. Transgenic plants harboring either RNAi construct displayed similar phenotypes of precocious leaf senescence symptoms, suggesting that knockdown of OsHox33 accelerates leaf senescence in rice. pOsHox33::GUS fusion expression and RT-PCR revealed that OsHox33 is highly expressed in young organs, especially in young meristems such as shoot apical meristems, intercalary meristems, and young callus. In addition, real-time PCR indicated that OsHox33 was more highly expressed in young leaves than in old leaves. To further investigate OsHox33 function, we analyzed chloroplast ultrastructure in different-aged leaves of RNAi plants, and found that OsHox33 knockdown accelerated chloroplast degradation, which is consistent with RNAi phenotypes. Finally, real-time PCR studies showed that OsHox33 can regulate the expression of GS1 and GS2, two senescence-associated genes. Taken together, the work presented here provides new insights into the function of HD-Zip III members in plants.     

NO VEIN Mediates Auxin-Dependent Specification and Patterning in the Arabidopsis Embryo,Shoot, and Root

Local efflux-dependent auxin gradients and maxima mediate organ and tissue development in plants. Auxin efflux is regulated by dynamic expression and subcellular localization of the PIN auxin-efflux proteins, which appears to be established not only through a self-organizing auxin-mediated polarization mechanism, but also through other means, such as cell fate determination and auxin-independent mechanisms. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis thaliana NO VEIN (NOV) gene, encoding a novel, plant-specific nuclear factor, is required for leaf vascular development, cellular patterning and stem cell maintenance in the root meristem, as well as for cotyledon outgrowth and separation. nov mutations affect many aspects of auxin-dependent development without directly affecting auxin perception. NOV is required for provascular PIN1 expression and region-specific expression of PIN7 in leaf primordia, cell type–specific expression of PIN3, PIN4, and PIN7 in the root, and PIN2 polarity in the root cortex. NOV is specifically expressed in developing embryos, leaf primordia, and shoot and root apical meristems. Our data suggest that NOV function underlies cell fate decisions associated with auxin gradients and maxima, thus establishing cell type–specific PIN expression and polarity. We propose that NOV mediates the acquisition of competence to undergo auxin-dependent coordinated cell specification and patterning, thereby eliciting context-dependent auxin-mediated developmental responses.     

SLOW MOTION Is Required for Within-Plant Auxin Homeostasis and Normal Timing of Lateral Organ Initiation at the Shoot Meristem in Arabidopsis

The regular arrangement of leaves and flowers around a plant''s stem is a fascinating expression of biological pattern formation. Based on current models, the spacing of lateral shoot organs is determined by transient local auxin maxima generated by polar auxin transport, with existing primordia draining auxin from their vicinity to restrict organ formation close by. It is unclear whether this mechanism encodes not only spatial information but also temporal information about the plastochron (i.e., the interval between the formation of successive primordia). Here, we identify the Arabidopsis thaliana F-box protein SLOW MOTION (SLOMO) as being required for a normal plastochron. SLOMO interacts genetically with components of polar auxin transport, and mutant shoot apices contain less free auxin. However, this reduced auxin level at the shoot apex is not due to increased polar auxin transport down the stem, suggesting that it results from reduced synthesis. Independently reducing the free auxin level in plants causes a similar lengthening of the plastochron as seen in slomo mutants, suggesting that the reduced auxin level in slomo mutant shoot apices delays the establishment of the next auxin maximum. SLOMO acts independently of other plastochron regulators, such as ALTERED MERISTEM PROGRAM1 or KLUH/CYP78A5. We propose that SLOMO contributes to auxin homeostasis in the shoot meristem, thus ensuring a normal rate of the formation of auxin maxima and organ initiation.     

Shoot organization genes regulate shoot apical meristem organization and the pattern of leaf primordium initiation in rice

The mechanism regulating the pattern of leaf initiation was analyzed by using shoot organization (sho) mutants derived from three loci (SHO1, SHO2, and SHO3). In the early vegetative phase, sho mutants show an increased rate of leaf production with random phyllotaxy. The resulting leaves are malformed, threadlike, or short and narrow. Their shoot apical meristems are relatively low and wide, that is, flat shaped, although their shape and size are highly variable among plants of the same genotype. Statistical analysis reveals that the shape of the shoot meristem rather than its size is closely correlated with the variations of plastochron and phyllotaxy. Rapid and random leaf production in sho mutants is correlated with the frequent and disorganized cell divisions in the shoot meristem and with a reduction of expression domain of a rice homeobox gene, OSH1. These changes in the organization and behavior of the shoot apical meristems suggest that sho mutants have fewer indeterminate cells and more determinate cells than wild type, with many cells acting as leaf founder cells. Thus, the SHO genes have an important role in maintaining the proper organization of the shoot apical meristem, which is essential for the normal initiation pattern of leaf primordia.     

DAR2 acts as an important node connecting cytokinin,auxin, SHY2 and PLT1/2 in root meristem size control

Cytokinin and auxin antagonistically affect cell proliferation and differentiation and thus regulate root meristem size by influencing the abundance of SHORT HYPOCOTYL2 (SHY2/IAA3). SHY2 affects auxin distribution in the root meristem by repressing the auxin-inducible expression of PIN-FORMED (PIN) auxin transport genes. The PLETHORA (PLT1/2) genes influence root meristem growth by promoting stem cells and transit-amplifying cells. However, the factors connecting cytokinin, auxin, SHY2 and PLT1/2 are largely unknown. In a recent study, we have shown that the DA1-related protein 2 (DAR2) acts downstream of cytokinin and SHY2 but upstream of PLT1/2 to affect root meristem size. Here, we discuss the possible molecular mechanisms by which Arabidopsis DAR2 controls root meristem size.     

Simulation of organ patterning on the floral meristem using a polar auxin transport model

An intriguing phenomenon in plant development is the timing and positioning of lateral organ initiation, which is a fundamental aspect of plant architecture. Although important progress has been made in elucidating the role of auxin transport in the vegetative shoot to explain the phyllotaxis of leaf formation in a spiral fashion, a model study of the role of auxin transport in whorled organ patterning in the expanding floral meristem is not available yet. We present an initial simulation approach to study the mechanisms that are expected to play an important role. Starting point is a confocal imaging study of Arabidopsis floral meristems at consecutive time points during flower development. These images reveal auxin accumulation patterns at the positions of the organs, which strongly suggests that the role of auxin in the floral meristem is similar to the role it plays in the shoot apical meristem. This is the basis for a simulation study of auxin transport through a growing floral meristem, which may answer the question whether auxin transport can in itself be responsible for the typical whorled floral pattern. We combined a cellular growth model for the meristem with a polar auxin transport model. The model predicts that sepals are initiated by auxin maxima arising early during meristem outgrowth. These form a pre-pattern relative to which a series of smaller auxin maxima are positioned, which partially overlap with the anlagen of petals, stamens, and carpels. We adjusted the model parameters corresponding to properties of floral mutants and found that the model predictions agree with the observed mutant patterns. The predicted timing of the primordia outgrowth and the timing and positioning of the sepal primordia show remarkable similarities with a developing flower in nature.