Genetic and morphological differentiation of Porphyra and Pyropia species (Bangiales,Rhodophyta) coexisting in a rocky intertidal in Central Chile

A recent molecular taxonomic study along the Chilean coast (18° S–53° S) described 18 candidate species of bladed Bangiales of which only two were formally described. Few studies focused on local genetic and morphological diversity of bladed Bangiales and attempted to determine their intertidal distribution in contrasting habitats, and none were performed in Chile. To delimit intertidal distributions of genetic species, 66 samples of bladed Bangiales were collected at Maitencillo (32° S) in four zones: a rocky platform, a rocky wall, and two boulders zones surrounded by sandy and rocky bottoms, respectively. These samples were identified based on sequences of the mitochondrial COI and chloroplast rbcL markers. We also collected 87 specimens for morphological characterization of the most common species, rapidly assessing their putative species identity using newly developed species‐diagnostic (PCR‐RFLP) markers. Eight microscopic and two macroscopic morphological traits were measured. We described and named three of four species that predominate in Maitencillo (including Pyropia orbicularis): Pyropia variabilis Zapata, Meynard, Ramírez, Contreras‐Porcia, sp. nov., Porphyra luchea Meynard, Ramírez, Contreras‐Porcia sp. nov., and Porphyra longissima Meynard, Ramírez, Contreras‐Porcia, sp. nov. With the exception of Po. longissima restricted to boulders surrounded by sandy bottom, and a morphotype of Py. variabilis restricted to rocky walls, the other species/morphotypes have overlapping intertidal distributions. Except for Po. longissima, which is clearly differentiated morphologically (longest and thinnest blades), we conclude that morphology is not sufficient to differentiate bladed Bangiales. Our findings underscore the importance of refining our knowledge of intrinsic and environmental determinants on the distribution of bladed Bangiales.     

Diversity and distribution of foliose Bangiales (Rhodophyta) in West Greenland: a link between the North Atlantic and North Pacific

Greenland is a continental island in the northern part of the North Atlantic where the foliose Bangiales flora is poorly known. It is an important area for the study of algal biogeography because of the region’s glacial history, in which Greenland has been alternately exposed to or isolated from the North Pacific via the Bering Strait. A molecular study using 3′ rbcL + 5′ rbcL–S sequences was undertaken to assess the diversity of foliose Bangiales on the west coast of Greenland and rbcL sequences were used to study the Greenland flora in a larger phylogenetic and floristic context. New and historic collections document seven species in four genera from the west coast of Greenland. All species had a close link to North Pacific species, being either conspecific with them or North Atlantic–North Pacific vicariant counterparts.     

A rosette by any other name: species diversity in the Bangiales (Rhodophyta) along the South African coast

The Bangiales is an order of Rhodophyta, widely distributed around the globe and best known for its economic value in the nori industry. The morphological simplicity of the group offers limited distinguishing characters for species identification. We therefore delimited species of the Bangiales along the South African coast based on two unlinked loci, the mitochondrial cox1 gene and the plastid rbcL gene, supplemented with additional sequence data from a third gene, the nuclear nSSU. Application of DNA-based species delimitation methods including the Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD), General Mixed Yule Coalescent (GYMC) and Poisson Tree Processes (PTP), resulted in the recognition of 10 Porphyra and three Pyropia species in South Africa, only three of which had been previously described. Additional species of Bangiales previously recorded along the South African coast were added to our final species list despite not being found in the present study, resulting in an estimate of 14–16 Bangiales species occurring along this shoreline. Most of this extensive genetic diversity has been misidentified as the commonly rosette-forming species P. capensis. The name P. capensis currently refers to a species complex and cannot be attached to any one species with certainty. All species in this complex, confirmed using genetic data, are endemic to South Africa. Our results compare well with other Southern Hemisphere countries, such as Chile and New Zealand, where high genetic diversity, species richness and endemicity have also been found.     

Diversity of bladed Bangiales (Rhodophyta) in western Mediterranean: recognition of the genus Themis and descriptions of T. ballesterosii sp. nov., T. iberica sp. nov., and Pyropia parva sp. nov.

The diversity of the bladed species of the red algal order Bangiales from the Iberian Mediterranean shores has been reassessed after a detailed study of this region. Prior to this study, 11 bladed species of Bangiales had been reported from Mediterranean waters: Porphyra atropurpurea, P. cordata, P. coriacea, P. dioica, P. linearis, P. purpurea, P. umbilicalis, Pyropia leucosticta, Pyropia koreana (as P. olivii), Py. elongata (as P. rosengurttii) and Py. suborbiculata. A combined analysis of the nuclear nSSU and the plastid rbcL genes together with detailed morphological studies has confirmed the presence of species within the genera Porphyra and Pyropia and also revealed a third, undescribed genus, Themis gen. nov. Porphyra linearis, Pyropia elongata and the introduced Pyropia koreana had been previously listed for the Mediterranean and were recorded in this study. An additional four species, including the introduced Pyropia suborbiculata and three new species: Pyropia parva sp. nov., Themis ballesterosii sp. nov., and Themis iberica sp. nov. were also observed. Hence, most of the Porphyra species traditionally reported along these shores were not reported in this survey. This new floristic Bangiales composition confirms the importance of the Mediterranean basin as a hotspot for biodiversity, possible endemics of ancient origin and high proportion of introductions. Our data also continue to confirm the extent of Bangiales diversity at regional and worldwide levels.     

Development of mariculture and its impacts in Chinese coastal waters

China has a long history of aquaculture. Since the 1980s, mariculture has been considered by the government as an increasingly important sub-sector of aquaculture. Mariculture provides nutritional and economic benefits, and decreases the intensity of exploitation on declining wild living resources. China now has the highest mariculture production in the world. Kelp made up 50–60% the total Chinese mariculture production in 1967–1980. Production of Laminaria japonicaAresch, the leading species, reached 252, 907 t (dry wet) in 1980. The percentage of kelp production decreased after 1981 because of proportionally greater production of molluscs, shrimps and finfish. Marine finfish and mollusc production increased sharply after 1990. In 2001, the total mariculture production reached 11,315,000 t from a production area of 1,286,000 ha. The rapid development and changes in mariculture species have aroused increasing concern about maricultures impact on the coastal environment. The impact of coastal aquaculture, such as water quality deterioration and contaminants, will have a significant bearing on the expansion of mariculture. The key of improving and maintaining the long-term health of mariculture zones lies in adopting sustainable culture systems. It is imperative that the density of stocking fish and other economically important organisms such as oysters, and scallops, be controlled, in addition to restricting the total number of net-cages in the mariculture zones. The authors suggest moving rafts (cages) periodically and to development of a fallow system in which area fish culture will be suspended for 1–2 years to facilitate recovery of the polluted sediment. Moving fish culture offshore into deeper waters is also suggested. The authors also believe that large-scale seaweed cultivation will reduce eutrophication in coastal culture zones in China.     

A temporal and spatial study of genetic structure in four species of bladed Bangiales (Rhodophyta) from the southeastern Pacific coast of Chile

The coastline is a heterogeneous and highly dynamic environment influenced by abiotic and biotic variables affecting the temporal stability of genetic diversity and structure of marine organisms. The aim of this study was to determine how much the genetic structure of four species of marine Bangiales vary in time and space. Partial sequences of the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene obtained from two Pyropia (Py. sp. CHJ and Py. orbicularis) and two Porphyra (P. mumfordii and P. sp. FIH) species were used to compare the effect of the 40° S/41° S biogeographic break (spatial-regional scale) and the one of the Valdivia River discharges (spatial-local scale) and determine their temporal stability. Four seasonal samplings were taken during 1 year at five sites, one site located in Melinka (Magallanes province) and four sites along the coast of Valdivia (Intermediate area), on both sides of the river mouth. Results showed a strong genetic spatial structure at regional scale (ΦST > 0.4) in Py. sp. CHJ, Py. orbicularis, and P. mumfordii, congruent with the 41° S/42° S biogeographic break. A potential barrier to gene flow, related to the Valdivia River discharge, was detected only in P. mumfordii. In P. sp. FIH, spatial genetic structure was not detected at any scale. The genetic structure of all four species is stable throughout the year. The potential effect of main currents and river discharge in limiting the transport of Bangiales spores are discussed. We propose that both a restricted propagule dispersal and the formation potential for persistent banks of microscopic stages could lead to a temporally stable spatial partitioning of genetic variation in bladed Bangiales.     

中国外来海洋生物及其影响

到目前为止,我国已从国外引进了鱼类10种、虾类2种、贝类9种、棘皮动物1种、藻类4种进行海水养殖;引进了抗盐植物2种进行盐碱地栽培;海洋水族馆业的发展,引进了数百种观赏性海洋生物;航运业中的船体附着及压舱水排放,无意中带入了几百种外来海洋生物。首先,外来海洋入侵生物与土著海洋生物争夺生存空间与食物,危害我国土著海洋生物的生存。其次,海洋外来生物通过与亲缘关系接近的物种进行杂交,降低我国海洋土著生物的遗传质量,造成遗传污染。再次,外来海洋生物可能带来病原生物,对海洋生态环境造成巨大的危害。此外,近些年来,我国沿海赤潮越来越严重,其重要原因之一是外来生存能力较强的赤潮生物的危害。     

Prospects and challenges for industrial production of seaweed bioactives

Large‐scale seaweed cultivation has been instrumental in globalizing the seaweed industry since the 1950s. The domestication of seaweed cultivars (begun in the 1940s) ended the reliance on natural cycles of raw material availability for some species, with efforts driven by consumer demands that far exceeded the available supplies. Currently, seaweed cultivation is unrivaled in mariculture with 94% of annual seaweed biomass utilized globally being derived from cultivated sources. In the last decade, research has confirmed seaweeds as rich sources of potentially valuable, health‐promoting compounds. Most existing seaweed cultivars and current cultivation techniques have been developed for producing commoditized biomass, and may not necessarily be optimized for the production of valuable bioactive compounds. The future of the seaweed industry will include the development of high value markets for functional foods, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Entry into these markets will require a level of standardization, efficacy, and traceability that has not previously been demanded of seaweed products. Both internal concentrations and composition of bioactive compounds can fluctuate seasonally, geographically, bathymetrically, and according to genetic variability even within individual species, especially where life history stages can be important. History shows that successful expansion of seaweed products into new markets requires the cultivation of domesticated seaweed cultivars. Demands of an evolving new industry based upon efficacy and standardization will require the selection of improved cultivars, the domestication of new species, and a refinement of existing cultivation techniques to improve quality control and traceability of products.     

Developmental Studies in Porphyra Vietnamensis: a High-Temperature Resistant Species from the Indian Coast

Porphyra vietnamensis Tanaka & Pham-Hoang Ho (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) is a tropical seaweed collected from the west coast of India. Thalli of the blade phase are found growing only during the rainy season between July and September. They grow on rocky intertidal or subtidal substrata or as epiphytes on other seaweeds such as Enteromorpha flexuosa and Chaetomorpha media. The gametophytic thallus is monostromatic and covered with spines at the base. The species is monoecious. Male gametangia are found in patches that are distributed in the upper part of the thallus. Archeospores are found at the thallus margins and give rise to the blade phase after one week of germination even at 30 ^∘ C. Zygotospores germinated at 25 ^∘ C into conchocelis within three days from the date of their inoculation. Conchospores were released at 30 ^∘ C. The young blades grew at 32 ^∘ C in the laboratory.     

Genetic diversity of Kappaphycus species (Gigartinales,Rhodophyta) in the Philippines

The mariculture of eucheumatoids (species of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma) in the Philippines has had a long history, dating back to the 1970s. Over this period, a number of varieties have been brought into domestication; some are now widely distributed and farmed in various regions of the country, but a significant number appear to have a more restricted distribution and are farmed only in certain areas. The taxonomy of many of these seaweed cultivars and their phylogenetic relationships still remain to be resolved at the specific and subspecific levels. In this study, two mitochondrial DNA markers, COI-5P region and cox2-3 intergenic spacer, were used to assess the genetic diversity of the farmed varieties and a few specimens collected from the wild. Analysis using haplotype networks revealed several new haplotypes for K. alvarezii, K. malesianus and K. striatus, mainly from specimens collected from eastern and southwestern regions of the Philippines. The inferred phylogenetic relationships based on both mtDNA markers resolved the identity of all the materials used in the study at the species level. We present molecular evidence that K. malesianus, in addition to K. alvarezii, K. cottonii, K. inermis, K. procrusteanus and K. striatus (and, hence, all currently recognized species of Kappaphycus) occurs in the Philippines. Collectively, these observations suggest that the Philippine archipelago has richer genetic diversity of farmed and wild Kappaphycus than do the other geographic regions, consistent with the hypothesis that the Philippines is, or is part of, the centre of Kappaphycus biodiversity in the world. These findings also reveal an untapped diversity that can potentially be exploited for improving the commercial production of these carrageenophytes.     

中国植物分类及标本采集史简述

植物分类学是一门古老的科学,其发展也受到了社会历史变革的深刻影响。该文通过对我国植物分类学研究和发展史进行简要回顾,根据人们对植物分类学科的认识程度以及社会重大历史事件等,将我国植物分类的发展史大体分为原始、古代、近代和现代4个阶段,并对各阶段进行了简要说明。植物标本是植物分类研究最基本和最重要的凭证材料,因此我国的植物标本采集史也见证了植物采集人员在我国植物分类学研究发展的历史过程中所付出的血汗、泪水甚至生命。植物资源的保护和种质资源的收集和保存正日益成为我国生态文明建设的主要内容,在新时代生物多样性保护的背景下,植物分类学和植物分类研究人员将会发挥更重要的作用,为我国的生物多样性保护提供更加有力的支撑。     

Cultivation of a hybrid of free-living gametophytes between Undariopsis peterseniana and Undaria pinnatifida: morphological aspects and cultivation period

The kelp Undariopsis peterseniana is warm-water-tolerant, and consequently, there is currently considerable interest in developing commercial cultivation techniques for this species in Korea. U. peterseniana plants have been successfully transferred to the northern coast of Korea beyond their original habitat in Jeju Island (33°30′08.65″N, 126°55′39.02″E). In this study, we cultured a hybrid kelp consisting of a cross between free-living gametophytes of U. peterseniana and U. pinnatifida in an attempt to extend the culture period of Undaria which is an important species for both the abalone industry and for commercial seaweed mariculture for human food applications. Morphological characters and cultivation period were compared between the parent thalli and the hybrid. The cultivation experiment was conducted in Wando, on the southern coast of Korea (34°26′18.68″N, 127°05′43.88″E). The morphological characteristics of the hybrid thalli were intermediate between the two species having shallow pinnated blades and a reduced reproductive organ. Hybrid thalli showed faster growth rates, 1.5 times greater biomass, and a longer cultivation period than the parent thalli. The hybrid strain possessed characteristics that indicate it could be used as an alternative kelp source to supply the abalone feed industry.     

Cultivation of seaweed Gracilaria lemaneiformis enhanced biodiversity in a eukaryotic plankton community as revealed via metagenomic analyses

Plankton diversity reflects the quality and health of waters and should be monitored as a critical feature of marine ecosystems. This study applied a pair of 28S rRNA gene‐specific primers and pyrosequencing to assess the effects of large‐scale cultivation of the seaweed Gracilaria lemaneiformis on the biodiversity of eukaryotic plankton community in the coastal water of Guangdong, China. With 1 million sequences (2,221 operational taxonomic units [OTUs]) obtained from 51 samples, we found that the biodiversity of eukaryotic plankton community was significantly higher in the seaweed cultivation area than that in the nearby control area as reflected in OTU richness, evenness (Shannon–Wiener index) and dominance (Simpson index) for total plankton community and its four subcategories when Gracilaria biomass reached the maximum, while no such a significant difference was observed before seaweed inoculation. Our laboratory experiment using an artificial phytoplankton community of nine species observed the same effects of Gracilaria exposure. Principal component analysis and principal coordinates analysis showed the plankton community structure in cultivation area markedly differed from the control area when Gracilaria biomass reached its maximum. Redundancy analysis showed that G. lemaneiformis was the critical factor in controlling the dynamics of eukaryotic plankton communities in the studied coastal ecosystem. Our results explicitly demonstrated G. lemaneiformis cultivation could enhance biodiversity of plankton community via allelopathy, which prevents one or several plankton species from blooming and consequently maintains a relatively higher biodiversity. Our study provided further support for using large‐scale G. lemaneiformis cultivation as an effective approach for improving costal ecosystem health.     

Do changes in seaweed biodiversity influence associated invertebrate epifauna?

Most investigations of biogenic habitat provision consider the promotion of local biodiversity by single species, yet habitat-forming species are often themselves components of diverse assemblages. Increased prevalence of anthropogenic changes to assemblages of habitat-forming species prompts questions about the importance of facilitator biodiversity to associated organisms. We used observational and short-term (30 days) manipulative studies of an intertidal seaweed system to test for the implications of changes in four components of biodiversity (seaweed species richness, functional group richness, species composition, and functional group composition) on associated small mobile invertebrate epifauna. We found that invertebrate epifauna richness and abundance were not influenced by changes in seaweed biodiversity. Invertebrate assemblage structure was in most cases not influenced by changes in seaweed biodiversity; only when algal assemblages were composed of monocultures of species with ‘foliose’ morphologies did we observe a difference in invertebrate assemblage structure. Correlations between algal functional composition and invertebrate assemblage structure were observed, but there was no correlation between algal species composition and invertebrate assemblage structure. These results suggest that changes in seaweed biodiversity are likely to have implications for invertebrate epifauna only under specific scenarios of algal change.     

Phycological research in the development of the Chinese seaweed industry

The term seaweed industry is employed in a broad sense and includes production both of commercial seaweeds such as Laminaria and Porphyra by phycoculture and of processed seaweed products, such as algin, agar and carrageenan.Before the founding of the People's Republic, China had a very insignificant seaweed industry, producing small quantities of the purple laver Porphyra and the glueweed Gloiopeltis by the primitive rock-cleaning method and the kelps Laminaria and Undaria by the primitive stone-throwing method, both aiming at enhancing the growth of the wild seaweeds. Also, a small quantity of agar was manufactured by the traditional Japanese method of gelling, freezing, thawing and drying the product. The small production was not sufficient to meet the demand of the Chinese people who for ages have appreciated seaweeds and their products for food. Therefore, large quantities of seaweeds and seaweed products had to be imported from various countries, for instance, Eucheuma and Gracilaria from Indonesia and other southeastern Asian countries, Laminaria and agar from Japan, even Porphyra from the USA. Annual Laminaria import from Japan generally amounted to over 10 000 tons and in some years approached 20 000–30 000 tons. Some quantities of the glueweed Gloiopeltis and the vermifuge weed Digenea simplex were exported, mainly to Japan.Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in October, 1949, China has exerted efforts to build up a self-supporting seaweed industry. Now after a lapse of 30-some years, a sizable seaweed industry has been developed. China is now able to produce by phycoculture more than one million tons of fresh seaweeds, including Laminaria, Undaria, Porphyra, Eucheuma, Gracilaria etc. and several thousand tons of seaweed extracts, including algin, agar, carrageenan, mannitol and iodine. At present, China still imports some quantities of seaweeds and seaweed products from various countries but is able to produce sufficient quantities to meet the people's need and even to export some quantities of the seaweeds Laminaria, Undaria and Porphyra and the seaweed products algin and mannitol.At the Tenth International Seaweed Symposium, I presented a paper on the Marine Phycoculture of China, in which I emphasized on the methods of cultivation (Tseng 1981b). Therefore I would like to take this opportunity to supplement the last lecture by presenting a paper on the role of phycological research in the development of China's seaweed industry.     

中国高等植物多样性编目进展

中国高等植物多样性编目是“中国生物物种名录”项目中的重要组成部分, 旨在后植物志时代对中国高等植物的物种名录进行修订和年度更新。自2017年深圳国际植物学大会以来, 中国高等植物物种名录已进行了5次年度更新。名录参考最新的植物分类学研究进展, 对各大类群全面采用有分子证据的新分类系统, 收录5年来发表的中国植物新类群和新记录, 补充往年遗漏的部分类群, 并依据新的专科专属的修订结果对发生属间分类变动的类群进行了更新。目前的中国高等植物物种名录包含角苔类4科9属27种, 苔类62科170属1,081种94个种下等级, 藓类94科453属2,006种154个种下等级, 石松类3科12属165种4个种下等级, 蕨类38科177属2,215种228个种下等级, 裸子植物10科45属291种118个种下等级, 被子植物272科3,409属32,708种6,909个种下等级, 共计483科4,275属38,493种7,507个种下等级, 较5年前增加了19科270属2,334种。     

The Lessonia nigrescens fishery in northern Chile: “how you harvest is more important than how much you harvest”

In Chile, management of natural resources usually starts right before its imminent collapse or after evident declination. In the northern area of the country, the fishery of brown seaweeds has an enormous social, ecological, and economical importance. More than 11,000 people depend directly or indirectly on the collection and harvesting of this resource. Ecologically, kelps constitute areas for food, reproduction, and refuge for hundreds of invertebrates and fish species. Economically, landings up to 300,000 dry tons per year represent close to US $60 million for the industry. Until 2002, the Chilean brown seaweed fishery was mainly sustained by natural mortality, where plants cast ashore were collected by artisanal fishermen. Since then, three brown seaweed species of economic importance (Lessonia nigrescens, Lessonia trabeculata, and Macrocystis pyrifera) have been intensively harvested in coastal areas between 18° and 32° S. To manage kelp populations along the northern Chilean coast, regulations have been based on the principle “how you harvest is more important than how much you harvest”. This exploitation strategy has been adopted in consensus between fishermen, industries, governmental entities, and scientists. Since L. nigrescens represents more than 70% of total brown seaweed landings, this study tests the effects of L. nigrescens harvesting on the following population variables: (1) abundance, (2) distribution, (3) juvenile recruitment, (4) plant morphology, (5) frequency of reproductive plants, and (6) biodiversity of the macroinvertebrate community associated to kelp holdfasts. Our results show that, despite the enormous harvesting pressure on Lessonia density and biomass, the associated macroinvertebrate richness has been maintained, due to normal plant growth and high recruitment all year round.     

Distribution and conservation status of forest bamboo biodiversity in the Asia-Pacific Region

Although Asian bamboo species constitute a non-timber forest product of major cultural and economic importance, no detailed regional assessment of their distribution patterns has previously been made. To assess the potential of the existing bamboo species distribution data for production of regional mapping tools for planning the conservation of forest-based biodiversity, data on bamboo distribution and forest cover were combined. Over 1000 bamboo species from 60 genera of woody bamboos were incorporated, allowing the mapping of individual species or groups of species and genera, along with potential species richness and biodiversity hotspots. Over 6.3 million km² of Asian forest potentially contains bamboo, with highest densities indicated from northeastern India through Burma to southern China, and through Sumatra to Borneo. The highest figures for potential species richness (144 spp per square km) were recorded in forests of south China, including Hainan Island. Despite substantial inadequacies and inconsistencies in knowledge of the taxonomy and distribution of bamboo species, this approach may provide a valuable tool for planning in situ conservation of forest biodiversity.     

《中国生物多样性红色名录》的制定 及其对生物多样性保护的意义

早在20世纪80年代, 我国就引入IUCN红色名录原理, 对我国生物物种的濒危状况开展评估工作。但是随着经济发展和气候变化, 一些物种的数量和分布区发生了变化, 加之在以往的评估中存在一些不足, 亟需对我国生物物种的濒危状况开展一次全面的评估。2008年, 环境保护部联合中国科学院启动了《中国生物多样性红色名录》的编制工作, 《中国生物多样性红色名录——高等植物卷》和《中国生物多样性红色名录——脊椎动物卷》分别于2013年9月和2015年5月正式对外发布。本文回顾了《中国生物多样性红色名录》的编制背景、过程和取得的成果。《中国生物多样性红色名录》完成了对我国34,450种高等植物和除海洋鱼类外的4,357种脊椎动物受威胁状况的评估, 是迄今为止对象最广、信息最全、参与专家人数最多的一次评估。在评估中取得了一系列成果: 统计了中国已知高等植物和脊椎动物物种数, 确定了物种丰富度在世界上的排名; 完善了国际上所使用的IUCN红色名录评估等级标准体系; 评估分析了我国已知高等植物和脊椎动物的受威胁程度及分布差异; 评估分析了高等植物和脊椎动物濒危灭绝的原因, 其中人类活动导致的生境丧失和退化是首要因素。这些成果将对我国生物多样性保护和管理工作产生积极的影响。