Protein engineering of cytochrome p450(cam) (CYP101) for the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Mutations of the active site residues F87 and Y96 greatly enhanced the activity of cytochrome P450(cam) (CYP101) from Pseudomonas putida for the oxidation of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene. Wild-type P450(cam) had low (<0.01 min(-1)) activity with these substrates. Phenanthrene was oxidized to 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-phenanthrol, while fluoranthene gave mainly 3-fluoranthol. Pyrene was oxidized to 1-pyrenol and then to 1,6- and 1,8-pyrenequinone, with small amounts of 2-pyrenol also formed with the Y96A mutant. Benzo[a]pyrene gave 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene as the major product. The NADH oxidation rate of the mutants with phenanthrene was as high as 374 min(-1), which was 31% of the camphor oxidation rate by wild-type P450(cam), and with fluoranthene the fastest rate was 144 min(-1). The oxidation of phenanthrene and fluoranthene were highly uncoupled, with highest couplings of 1.3 and 3.1%, respectively. The highest coupling efficiency for pyrene oxidation was a reasonable 23%, but the NADH turnover rate was slow. The product distributions varied significantly between mutants, suggesting that substrate binding orientations can be manipulated by protein engineering, and that genetic variants of P450(cam) may be useful for studying the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by P450 enzymes.     

Genome-to-function characterization of novel fungal P450 monooxygenases oxidizing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Fungi, particularly the white rot basidiomycetes, have an extraordinary capability to degrade and/or mineralize (to CO₂) the recalcitrant fused-ring high molecular weight (?4 aromatic-rings) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HMW PAHs). Despite over 30 years of research demonstrating involvement of P450 monooxygenation reactions in fungal metabolism of HMW PAHs, specific P450 monooxygenases responsible for oxidation of these compounds are not yet known. Here we report the first comprehensive identification and functional characterization of P450 monooxygenases capable of oxidizing different ring-size PAHs in the model white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium using a successful genome-to-function strategy. In a genome-wide P450 microarray screen, we identified six PAH-responsive P450 genes (Pc-pah1-Pc-pah6) inducible by PAHs of varying ring size, namely naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene, and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). Using a co-expression strategy, cDNAs of the six Pc-Pah P450s were cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris in conjunction with the homologous P450 oxidoreductase (Pc-POR). Each of the six recombinant P450 monooxygenases showed PAH-oxidizing activity albeit with varying substrate specificity towards PAHs (3-5 rings). All six P450s oxidized pyrene (4-ring) into two monohydroxylated products. Pc-Pah1 and Pc-Pah3 oxidized BaP (5-ring) to 3-hydroxyBaP whereas Pc-Pah4 and Pc-Pah6 oxidized phenanthrene (3-ring) to 3-, 4-, and 9-phenanthrol. These PAH-oxidizing P450s (493-547 aa) are structurally diverse and novel considering their low overall homology (12-23%) to mammalian counterparts. To our knowledge, this is the first report on specific fungal P450 monooxygenases with catalytic activity toward environmentally persistent and highly toxic HMW PAHs.     

Protein engineering of Bacillus megaterium CYP102.The oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes are involved in activating the carcinogenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in mammals, but they are also utilized by microorganisms for the degradation of these hazardous environmental contaminants. Wild-type CYP102 (P450(BM-3)) from Bacillus megaterium has low activity for the oxidation of the PAHs phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene. The double hydrophobic substitution R47L/Y51F at the entrance of the substrate access channel increased the PAH oxidation activity by up to 40-fold. Combining these mutations with the active site mutations F87A and A264G lead to order of magnitude increases in activity. Both these mutations increased the NADPH turnover rate, but the A264G mutation increased the coupling efficiency while the F87A mutation had dominant effects in product selectivity. Fast NADPH oxidation rates were observed (2250 min-1 for the R47L/Y51F/F87A mutant with phenanthrene) but the coupling efficiencies were relatively low (< 13%), resulting in a highest substrate oxidation rate of 110 min-1 for fluoranthene oxidation by the R47L/Y51F/A264G mutant. Mutation of M354 and L437 inside the substrate access channel reduced PAH oxidation activity. The PAHs were oxidized to a mixture of phenols and quinones. Notably mutants containing the A264G mutation showed some similarity to mammalian CYP enzymes in that some 9,10-phenanthrenequinone, the K-region oxidation product from phenanthrene, was formed. The results suggest that CYP102 mutants could be useful models for PAH oxidation by mammalian CYP enzymes, and also potentially for the preparation of novel PAH bioremediation systems.     

Heterologous expression of fungal cytochromes P450 (CYP5136A1 and CYP5136A3) from the white-rot basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium: Functionalization with cytochrome b5 in Escherichia coli

Cytochromes P450 from the white-rot basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium, CYP5136A1 and CYP5136A3, are capable of catalyzing oxygenation reactions of a wide variety of exogenous compounds, implying their significant roles in the metabolism of xenobiotics by the fungus. It is therefore interesting to explore their biochemistry to better understand fungal biology and to enable the use of fungal enzymes in the biotechnology sector. In the present study, we developed heterologous expression systems for CYP5136A1 and CYP5136A3 using the T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system in Escherichia coli. Expression levels of recombinant P450s were dramatically improved by modifications and optimization of their N-terminal amino acid sequences. A CYP5136A1 reaction system was reconstructed in E. coli whole cells by coexpression of CYP5136A1 and a redox partner, NADPH-dependent P450 reductase (CPR). The catalytic activity of CYP5136A1 was significantly increased when cytochrome b₅ (Cyt-b₅) was further coexpressed with CPR, indicating that Cyt-b₅ supports electron transfer reactions from NAD(P)H to CYP5136A1. Notably, P450 reaction occurred in E. coli cells that harbored CYP5136A1 and Cyt-b₅ but not CPR, implying that the reducing equivalents required for the P450 catalytic cycle were transferred via a CPR-independent pathway. Such an “alternative” electron transfer system in CYP5136A1 reaction was also demonstrated using purified enzymes in vitro. The fungal P450 reaction system may be associated with sophisticated electron transfer pathways.     

Metabolism of phenanthrene by house fly CYP6D1 and dog liver cytochrome P450

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a ubiquitous class of environmental contaminants. The compound phenanthrene is a model PAH. A novel fluorometric method for measuring phenanthrene metabolism in vitro was developed and verified with direct measurement of [14C]phenanthrene using dog liver microsomes. The fluorometric assay and direct measurement of [14C]phenanthrene metabolism were used to show that CYP6D1, a house fly cytochrome P450, is the major house fly P450 involved in phenanthrene metabolism. Phenanthrene was metabolized by microsomes from the LPR strain of house fly that overexpresses CYP6D1, but metabolism was not observed in the CS strain that has a lower level of CYP6D1. Furthermore, the majority of phenanthrene metabolism was inhibited by a CYP6D1-specific antibody. This study increases the number of known substrates of CYP6D1 and identifies polyaromatic hydrocarbons as potential substrates of CYP6D1. The utility of CYP6D1 as an agent in bioremediation and the utility of the new fluorometric assay for understanding PAH metabolism in insects and mammals are discussed.     

Structural Analysis of the Streptomyces avermitilis CYP107W1-Oligomycin A Complex and Role of the Tryptophan 178 Residue

CYP107W1 from Streptomyces avermitilis is a cytochrome P450 enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of macrolide oligomycin A. A previous study reported that CYP107W1 regioselectively hydroxylated C12 of oligomycin C to produce oligomycin A, and the crystal structure of ligand free CYP107W1 was determined. Here, we analyzed the structural properties of the CYP107W1-oligomycin A complex and characterized the functional role of the Trp178 residue in CYP107W1. The crystal structure of the CYP107W1 complex with oligomycin A was determined at a resolution of 2.6 Å. Oligomycin A is bound in the substrate access channel on the upper side of the prosthetic heme mainly by hydrophobic interactions. In particular, the Trp178 residue in the active site intercalates into the large macrolide ring, thereby guiding the substrate into the correct binding orientation for a productive P450 reaction. A Trp178 to Gly mutation resulted in the distortion of binding titration spectra with oligomycin A, whereas binding spectra with azoles were not affected. The Gly178 mutant’s catalytic turnover number for the 12-hydroxylation reaction of oligomycin C was highly reduced. These results indicate that Trp178, located in the open pocket of the active site, may be a critical residue for the productive binding conformation of large macrolide substrates.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon biodegradation in extracellular fluids and static batch cultures of selected sub-tropical white rot fungi

Four sub-tropical white rot fungi, Trametes versicolor, Trametes pocas, Trametes cingulata and isolate DSPM95 were studied alongside the well studied white rot fungus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, for their ability to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from culture media. Both static shallow cultures and extracellular fluids were studied using media contaminated with a defined mixture of the PAHs; fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene. With all isolates, the total loss of the parent compound in 31 days was high for fluorene, at +60%, phenanthrene at +40% and anthracene at +42%. Biotransformation of pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene by all the isolates was low, with the highest reduction of pyrene of 15.2% and benzo(a)anthracene of 15.8% being achieved with P. chrysosporium. Disappearance of the more condensed PAHs, pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene, increased in shallow static cultures with the addition of glucose and glucose oxidase as a source of additional H2O2. The addition of Mn2+ and ABTS (2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) to culture supernatants was associated with higher levels of biotransformation. Comparison of the isolates T. versicolor, T. pocas, T. cingulata and isolate DSPM95 with P. chrysosporium showed that these strains were competitive in the reduction of the PAHs, reducing the PAHs by more or less the same magnitude. Also these sub-tropical isolates did not accumulate a lot of HPLC detectable metabolites as much as P. chrysosporium.     

Establishment of ten strains of genetically engineered Salmonella typhimurium TA1538 each co-expressing a form of human cytochrome P450 with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase sensitive to various promutagens

We newly developed 10 Salmonela typhimurium TA1538 strains each co-expressing a form of human cytochrome P450s (P450 or CYP) together with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) for highly sensitive detection of mutagenic activation of mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, and aromatic amines at low substrate concentrations. Each form of P450 (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP3A4 or CYP3A5) expressed in the TA1538 cells efficiently catalyzed the oxidation of a representative substrate. Aflatoxin B1 was mutagenically activated effectively by CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4 and weakly by CYP2A6 and CYP2C8 expressed in S. typhimurium TA1538. CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 were responsible for the mutagenic activation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-acetylaminofluorene. Benzo[a]pyrene was also activated efficiently by CYP1A1 and weakly by CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4 expressed in TA1538. These results suggest that the newly developed S. typhimurium TA1538 strains are applicable for detecting the activation of promutagens of which mutagenic activation is not or weakly detectable with N-nitrosamine-sensitive YG7108 strains expressing human P450s.     

Effects of the “Aegean Sea” oil spill on biotransformation enzymes,oxidative stress and DNA-adducts in digestive gland of the mussel (Mytilus edulus L.)

Possible molecular biomarkers of impact by organic pollution on mussels were applied to samples from five sites along the Galician Coast, Spain, taken 6 months after the oil spill from the tanker “Aegean Sea.” Whole body aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations were similar at all sites, but specific chemical ratios (resolved/unresolved hydrocarbons; carbon preference index; pristane/phytane) indicated a predominance of degraded petrogenic hydrocarbons nearer the oil spill. Levels of whole body polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (sum of 13 PAHs) increased steadily towards the oil spill, and were paralleled by increases in digestive gland levels of total cytochrome P-450, CYP1A-like protein and lipid peroxidation (corr. coeffs. with PAHs of 0.64–0.67). Differences were more marked in CYP1A-like protein than total cytochrome P450, indicating induction of specific P450 isoenzyme(s). No differences between sites were seen for benzo[a]pyrene hydroxylase, glutathione S-transferase, Superoxide dismutase and DT-diaphorase activities. Bulky, hydrophobic DNA-adducts were detected in digestive gland of mussels from industrial and urban sites, but not from the site nearest to the oil spill which had the highest tissue levels of PAHs. Overall the results indicate induction of cytochrome P450(s) and oxidative damage in mussel with oil exposure.     

Posttranslational modification of E. coli histone-like protein H-NS and bovine histones by short-chain poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate (cPHB)

Understanding the mechanisms by which cytochrome(s) P450 (CYP) discriminate good from poor substrates, and orient them for highly regio- and stereoselective oxidation, has considerable intrinsic and practical importance. Here we present results of a study of fatty acid hydroxylation by CYP2B1 in a reconstituted system and in microsomes from phenobarbital-pretreated rats. The results indicate that 2B1 prefers decanoic acid as the optimum fatty acid substrate (among C(8)-C(16)) and that it hydroxylates all positions five or more methylene groups distant from the carboxylate carbon. That hydroxylation does not occur at carbon atoms closer to the carboxyl group than the C(6) position suggests that these carbons may not reach the ferryl oxygen because the carboxyl group is anchored to a specific site at a fixed distance from the heme iron.     

Structure prediction and R115866 binding study of human CYP26A1: homology modelling,fold recognition,molecular docking and MD simulations

Two three-dimensional (3D) models of human cytochrome P450 26A1 (CYP26A1) were constructed using the programs Modeller and Sybyl-GeneFold, respectively. After refinement by molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, the two models were validated by structure analysis-validation online server. Subsequently, a flexible docking study was performed on the model constructed by GeneFold with the potent and specific inhibitor R115866 to examine the enzyme–inhibitor interactions. From the docking results, we can see R115866 interacts with amino acid residues at the active site by multiple hydrophobic interactions including the side chains of His111, Trp112, Ser115, Val116, Leu125, Ser126, Leu221, Phe222, Glu296, Phe299, Gly300, Glu303, Thr304, Pro371 and the cofactor heme. Trp112 and Thr304 form hydrogen bonds with R115866 and play important roles in stabilising the complex. This constructed CYP26A1 model may provide an opportunity to understand the action mode of the enzyme and could be useful in designing novel retinoic acid metabolism blocking agents (RAMBAs).     

多环芳烃降解菌的筛选、鉴定及降解特性

【目的】多环芳烃(PAHs)是一类普遍存在于环境中且具有高毒性的持久性有机污染物,高效降解菌的筛选对利用生物修复技术有效去除环境中的多环芳烃具有重要意义。研究拟从供试菌株中筛选多环芳烃高效降解菌,并分析其降解特性,为多环芳烃污染环境的微生物修复提供资源保障和科学依据。【方法】采用平板法从25株供试菌株中筛选出以菲和芘为唯一碳源和能源的高效降解菌,经16S rRNA基因序列进行初步鉴定,通过单因素实验法分析其在液体培养基中的降解特性。【结果】筛选出的3株多环芳烃高效降解菌SL-1、02173和02830经16S rRNA基因序列分析,02173和02830分别与假单胞菌属中的Pseudomonas alcaliphila和Pseudomonas corrugate同源性最近,SL-1为本课题组发表新类群Rhizobium petrolearium的模式菌株;降解实验表明,菌株SL-1 3 d内对单一多环芳烃菲(100 mg/L)和芘(50 mg/L)的降解率分别达到100%和48%,5 d后能够降解74%的芘;而其3 d内对混合PAHs中菲和芘的降解率分别为75.89%和81.98%。菌株02173和02830 3 d内对混合多环芳烃中萘(200 mg/L)、芴(50 mg/L)、菲(100 mg/L)和芘(50 mg/L)的降解率均分别超过97%。【结论】筛选出的3株PAHs降解菌SL-1、02173和02830不仅可以高效降解低分子量PAHs,还对高分子量PAHs具有很好的降解潜力。研究表明,由于共代谢作用低分子量多环芳烃可促进高分子量多环芳烃的降解,而此时低分子量多环芳烃的降解将受到抑制。     

Improving the affinity and activity of CYP101D2 for hydrophobic substrates

CYP101D2 is a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Novosphingobium aromaticivorans which is closely related to CYP101A1 (P450cam) from Pseudomonas putida. Both enzymes selectively hydroxylate camphor to 5-exo-hydroxycamphor, and the residues that line the active sites of both enzymes are similar including the pre-eminent Tyr96 residue. However, Met98 and Leu253 in CYP101D2 replace Phe98 and Val247 in CYP101A1, and camphor binding only results in a maximal change in the spin state to 40 % high-spin. Substitutions at Tyr96, Met98 and Leu253 in CYP101D2 reduced both the spin state shift on camphor binding and the camphor oxidation activity. The Tyr96Ala mutant increased the affinity of CYP101D2 for hydrocarbon substrates including adamantane, cyclooctane, hexane and 2-methylpentane. The monooxygenase activity of the Tyr96Ala variant towards alkane substrates was also enhanced compared with the wild-type enzyme. The crystal structure of the substrate-free form of this variant shows the enzyme in an open conformation (PDB: 4DXY), similar to that observed with the wild-type enzyme (PDB: 3NV5), with the side chain of Ala96 pointing away from the heme. Despite this, the binding and activity data suggest that this residue plays an important role in substrate binding, evidencing that the enzyme probably undergoes catalysis in a more closed conformation, similar to those observed in the crystal structures of CYP101A1 (PDB: 2CPP) and CYP101D1 (PDB: 3LXI).     

植物对水中菲和芘的吸收

以菲和芘为多环芳烃（PAHs）代表物,采用水培体系研究了黑麦草（Lolium multiflorum Lam）对水中PAHs的吸收作用,重点研究了植物吸收菲和芘的时间动态.水中菲和芘起始浓度分别为1.00mg/L和0.12mg/L.0～288h内,黑麦草根和茎叶中菲和芘含量均先快速增加而后降低,积累量不断增大,植物根系和茎叶富集系数则先快速升高而后趋于稳定.茎叶中菲和芘含量、茎叶对菲和芘的富集系数比根低1～3数量级,积累量也明显小于根系.黑麦草根系对水中芘有更强的富集能力,其根系富集系数比菲大85%～179%;而其茎叶对菲的富集作用则略强.菲和芘在植物体内有明显的传导作用.0～288h,传导系数（TF）先显著升高而后趋于恒定;但实验条件下,菲和芘的TF值均很小,分别不高于0.031和0.009,且芘的TF值明显小于菲,表明供试植物对芘的传导能力更弱.     

Oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by the bacterial laccase CueO from E. coli

Laccases produced by white rot fungi are capable of rapidly oxidizing benzo[a]pyrene. We hypothesize that the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-degrading bacteria producing laccase can enhance the degree of benzo[a]pyrene mineralization. However, fungal laccases are glycoproteins which cannot be glycosylated in bacteria, and there is no evidence to show that bacterial laccases can oxidize benzo[a]pyrene. In this study, the in vitro oxidation of PAHs by crude preparations of the bacterial laccase, CueO, from Escherichia coli was investigated. The results revealed that the crude CueO catalyzed the oxidation of anthracene and benzo[a]pyrene in the same way as the fungal laccase from Trametes versicolor, but showed specific characteristics such as thermostability and copper dependence. In the presence of 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), high amounts of anthracene and benzo[a]pyrene, 80% and 97%, respectively, were transformed under optimal conditions of 60°C, pH 5, and 5 mmol l(-1) CuCl(2) after a 24-h incubation period. Other PAHs including fluorene, acenaphthylene, phenanthrene, and benzo[a]anthracene were also oxidized by the crude CueO. These findings indicated the potential application of prokaryotic laccases in enhancing the mineralization of benzo[a]pyrene by PAH-degrading bacteria.     

Molecular characterization and chromosomal localization of cytochrome P450 genes involved in the biosynthesis of cyclic hydroxamic acids in hexaploid wheat

The cyclic hydroxamic acids, 2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIBOA) and 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA), are defensive secondary metabolites found in gramineous plants including wheat, maize and rye. cDNAs for five cytochromes P450 (P450s) involved in DIBOA biosynthesis (CYP71C6, CYP71C7v2, CYP71C8v2, CYP71C9v1 and CYP71C9v2) were isolated from seedlings of hexaploid wheat [( Triticum aestivum L. cv. Chinese Spring (2n=6x=42, genomes AABBDD)] by RT-PCR and screening of a cDNA library. CYP71C9v1 and CYP71C9v2 are 97% identical to each other in amino acid and nucleotide sequences. The cloned P450 species showed 76-79% identity at the amino acid level to the corresponding maize P450 species CYP71C1-C4, which are also required for DIBOA biosynthesis. The wheat P450 cDNAs were heterologously expressed in the yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae) strain AH22. Microsome fractions from yeast cells expressing these P450 species catalyzed the same reactions as their maize orthologs. The chromosomes carrying the cyp71C6- C9v1 orthologs were identified by Southern hybridization using aneuploid lines of Chinese Spring wheat. The cyp71C9v1 orthologs were located on the chromosomes of wheat homoeologous group-4. The orthologs of the other P450 genes, cyp71C7v2, cyp71C6 and cyp71C8v2, were located on group-5 chromosomes. The same P450 genes were also present in the three ancestral diploid species of hexaploid wheat, T. monococcum (AA), Aegilops speltoides [BB (approximately SS)] and Ae. squarrosa (DD).     

PAH Degradation and Bioaugmentation by a Marine Methanotrophic Enrichment

Methanotrophic bacteria were enriched from marine sediments and screened for their ability to biotransform polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Characterization of the methanotrophic enrichment showed that it was dominated by a Type I methanotroph, although significant amounts of 18:1 fatty acids were detected, suggesting the presence of Type II methanotrophs in marine systems. The methanotrophic enrichment degraded phenanthrene, anthracene, and fluorene to below detectable levels in 15 days. Partial transformation of fluoranthene occurred over 15 days, but pyrene was not transformed. Radiolabeled phenanthrene was oxidized to carbon dioxide with significant production of polar intermediates. The oxidation was inhibited by acetylene, an inhibitor of methane monooxygenase. The addition of the methanotrophic enrichment to a marine culture grown on PAHs as the sole carbon sources increased the transformation rate of phenanthrene, anthracene, and fluorene. The highest removal rates were obtained with a mixture containing 90% methanotroph enrichment and 10% PAH-degrading enrichment (by biomass). Fluoranthene and pyrene degradation rates by the PAH-degrading enrichment were not significantly increased by the addition of the methanotrophic enrichment. A possible mechanism for the increased transformation rate was the rapid oxidation of PAHs by methane monooxygenase, forming an intermediate that is more bioavailable for utilization by the PAH-degraders.     

PAH Degradation Capacity of Soil Microbial Communities—Does It Depend on PAH Exposure?

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous pollutants of the environment. But is their microbial degradation equally wide in distribution? We estimated the PAH degradation capacity of 13 soils ranging from pristine locations (total PAHs ≈ 0.1 mg kg^?1) to heavily polluted industrial sites (total PAHs ≈ 400 mg kg^?1). The size of the pyrene- and phenanthrene-degrading bacterial populations was determined by most probable number (MPN) enumeration. Densities of phenanthrene degraders reflected previous PAH exposure, whereas pyrene degraders were detected only in the most polluted soils. The potentials for phenanthrene and pyrene degradation were measured as the mineralization of ¹⁴C-labeled spikes. The time to 10% mineralization of added ¹⁴C phenanthrene and ¹⁴C pyrene was inversely correlated with the PAH content of the soils. Substantial ¹⁴C phenanthrene mineralization in all soils tested, including seven unpolluted soils, demonstrated that phenanthrene is not a suitable model compound for predicting PAH degradation in soils. ¹⁴C pyrene was mineralized by all Danish soil samples tested, regardless of whether they were from contaminated sites or not, suggesting that in industrialized areas the background level of pyrene is sufficient to maintain pyrene degradation traits in the gene pool of soil microorganisms. In contrast, two pristine forest soils from northern Norway and Ghana mineralized little ¹⁴C pyrene within the 140-day test period. Mineralization of phenanthrene and pyrene by all Danish soils suggests that soil microbial communities of inhabited areas possess a sufficiently high PAH degradation capacity to question the value of bioaugmentation with specific PAH degraders for bioremediation.     

Conversion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphingomonas</Emphasis> sp. VKM B-2434

A versatile bacterial strain able to convert polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was isolated, and a conversion by the isolate of both individual substances and PAH mixtures was investigated. The strain belonged to the Sphingomonas genus as determined on the basis of 16S rRNA analysis and was designated as VKM B-2434. The strain used naphthalene, acenaphthene, phenanthrene, anthracene and fluoranthene as a sole source of carbon and energy, and cometabolically oxidized fluorene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene and benzo[a]pyrene. Acenaphthene and fluoranthene were degraded by the strain via naphthalene-1,8-dicarboxylic acid and 3-hydroxyphthalic acid. Conversion of most other PAHs was confined to the cleavage of only one aromatic ring. The major oxidation products of naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene, chrysene, and benzo[a]pyrene were identified as salicylic acid, 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, o-hydroxyphenanthroic acid and o-hydroxypyrenoic acid, respectively. Fluorene and pyrene were oxidized mainly to hydroxyfluorenone and dihydroxydihydropyrene, respectively. Oxidation of phenanthrene and anthracene to the corresponding hydroxynaphthoic acids occurred quantitatively. The strain converted phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and carbazole of coal-tar-pitch extract.     

Ethnic differences in CYP2C9*2 (Arg144Cys) and CYP2C9*3 (Ile359Leu) genotypes in Japanese and Israeli populations

CYP2C9 is a major P450 2C enzyme, which hydroxylates about 16% of drugs that are in current clinical use and contributes to the metabolism of a number of clinically important substrate drugs such as warfarin. Ethnic differences in the genetic variation of CYP2C9 have been reported, and might be related to the frequencies of adverse reactions to drugs metabolized by CYP2C9 in different ethnic groups. In the present study, ethnic differences in the CYP2C9*2 and CYP2C9*3 allele distribution in Japanese and Israeli populations were evaluated using a newly developed oligonucleotide based DNA array (OligoArray(R)). The population studied consisted of 147 Japanese and 388 Israeli donors (100 Ashkenazi Jews, 99 Yemenite Jews, 100 Moroccan Jews and 89 Libyan Jews). The CYP2C9*2 [Arg144Cys (416 C>T), exon 3] and CYP2C9*3 [Ile359Leu (1061 A>C), exon 7] genotypes were determined using an OligoArray(R). The accuracy of genotyping by the OligoArray(R) was verified by the fluorescent dye-terminator cycle sequencing method. A Hardy-Weinberg test indicated equilibrium (chi(2)<3.84 is Hardy-Weinberg) in all populations. The CYP2C9*2 genotype (CC/CT+TT) was absent in Japanese (1/0) (OR 0.02), and its frequency was significant in Libyan Jews (0.697/0.303) (OR 2.13; 95% CI 1.07-4.24) compared with Ashkenazi Jews (0.83/0.17), Yemenite Jews (0.899/0.101), and Moroccan Jews (0.81/0.19). The frequencies of CYP2C9*3 genotype (AA/AC+CC) was significantly lower in Japanese (0.986/0.014) (OR 0.08), and was higher in Libyan Jews (0.652/0.348) (OR 3.03; 95% CI 1.5-6.1) and Moroccan Jews (0.77/0.23) (OR 1.69; 95% CI 0.62-3.48) compared with those in Ashkenazi Jews (0.85/0.15) and Yemenite Jews (0.849/0.151). Thus, the CYP2C9*2 (Arg144Cys) and CYP2C9*3 (Ile359Leu) variants were rare in the Japanese population, and showed different frequencies in the four Jewish ethnic groups examined.