Glucose Deprivation Activates Diversity of Potassium Channels in Cultured Rat Hippocampal Neurons

1. Glucose is one of the most important substrates for generating metabolic energy required for the maintenance of cellular functions. Glucose-mediated changes in neuronal firing pattern have been observed in the central nervous system of mammals. K⁺ channels directly regulated by intracellular ATP have been postulated as a linkage between cellular energetic metabolism and excitability; the functional roles ascribed to these channels include glucose-sensing to regulate energy homeostasis and neuroprotection under energy depletion conditions. The hippocampus is highly sensitive to metabolic insults and is the brain region most sensitive to ischemic damage. Because the identity of metabolically regulated potassium channels present in hippocampal neurons is obscure, we decided to study the biophysical properties of glucose-sensitive potassium channels in hippocampal neurons.2. The dependence of membrane potential and the sensitivity of potassium channels to glucose and ATP in rat hippocampal neurons were studied in cell-attached and excised inside-out membrane patches.3. We found that under hypoglycemic conditions, at least three types of potassium channels were activated; their unitary conductance values were 37, 147, and 241 pS in symmetrical K⁺, and they were sensitive to ATP. For K⁺ channels with unitary conductance of 37 and 241, when the membrane potential was depolarized the longer closed time constant diminished and this produced an increase in the open-state probability; nevertheless, the 147-pS channels were not voltage-dependent.4. We propose that neuronal glucose-sensitive K⁺ channels in rat hippocampus include subtypes of ATP-sensitive channels with a potential role in neuroprotection during short-term or prolonged metabolic stress.     

人源性神经营养素-6对体外培养海马神经元存活的促进作用

分离出一周SD乳鼠海马组织,进行离体海马细胞培养;在培养基中加入神经营养素-6成熟肽片段,通过神经元特异性烯醇化酶免疫组化染色,计数存活海马神经元数量,与对照组比较,观察神经营养素-6对神经元存活的促进作用。结果显示,神经营养素-6实验组海马神经元存活数目显著高于对照组。表明人源性神经营养素-6可以促进体外培养神经元的存活。     

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Currents Induced by Activation of Interneurons in Cultured Rat Hippocampal Neurons

Using the patch-clamp technique in the whole-cell configuration, we studied the characteristics of a series of action potentials (APs) induced by a 500-msec-long current pulse applied to a pre-synaptic unit, as well as the kinetic characteristics of post-synaptic currents (PSCs) evoked by the APs in a post-synaptic unit, in synaptically connected pairs of cultured hippocampal neurons. Presynaptic inhibitory units were identified as GABA-ergic interneurons; they were divided into two groups according to the size of the soma and the number of processes. The kinetic characteristics of PSCs, which were induced in the post-synaptic neuron by a series of the APs generated in the pre-synaptic cell, demonstrated a certain dependence on the morphological characteristics of these cells. In interneurons with large-sized somata, the kinetics of the currents were more fast, and the reversal potential was close to the equilibrium Cl potential. In interneurons with small-sized somata, currents were slower, and the reversal potential was shifted. We conclude that under conditions of culturing, a pre-synaptic cell not only directly provokes the development of PSC in a post-synaptic neuron and determines the amplitude of this current but also significantly influences the kinetics of this current. Neirofiziologiya/Neurophysiology, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 116–123, March–April, 2005.     

无血清原代培养大鼠海马神经元的形态与膜电位

分离新生Wistar鼠海马,采用添加B27的无血清培养液进行海马神经元原代培养,动态观察海马神经元形态学变化;通过免疫荧光细胞化学法检测神经纤丝(NF)的表达,进行神经元鉴定及纯度计算;采用电位敏感的荧光探针标记神经元,在激光扫描共聚焦显微镜上动态监测去极化剂KCl作用前后膜电位的变化,观察神经元电生理反应。结果表明:此方法培养的大鼠海马神经元可在体外存活20天以上,9～14天为发育最成熟阶段,培养7天神经元纯度达90%。KCl作用于细胞后胞内荧光强度增强,细胞迅速去极化。本培养方法在体外获得高纯度的海马神经元并延长体外存活时间,且显示出神经元的电生理反应特性。     

Characterization of the Glutamate Receptors Mediating Release of Somatostatin from Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Abstract: l -Glutamate, NMDA, dl -α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA), and kainate (KA) increased the release of somatostatin-like immunoreactivity (SRIF-LI) from primary cultures of rat hippocampal neurons. In Mg²⁺-containing medium, the maximal effects (reached at ∼100 µ M ) amounted to 737% (KA), 722% (glutamate), 488% (NMDA), and 374% (AMPA); the apparent affinities were 22 µ M (AMPA), 39 µ M (glutamate), 41 µ M (KA), and 70 µ M (NMDA). The metabotropic receptor agonist trans -1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylate did not affect SRIF-LI release. The release evoked by glutamate (100 µ M ) was abolished by 10 µ M dizocilpine (MK-801) plus 30 µ M 1-aminophenyl-4-methyl-7,8-methylenedioxy-5 H -2,3-benzodiazepine (GYKI 52466). Moreover, the maximal effect of glutamate was mimicked by a mixture of NMDA + AMPA. The release elicited by NMDA was sensitive to MK-801 but insensitive to GYKI 52466. The AMPA- and KA-evoked releases were blocked by 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX) or by GYKI 52466 but were insensitive to MK-801. The release of SRIF-LI elicited by all four agonists was Ca²⁺ dependent, whereas only the NMDA-evoked release was prevented by tetrodotoxin. Removal of Mg²⁺ caused increase of basal SRIF-LI release, an effect abolished by MK-801. Thus, glutamate can stimulate somatostatin release through ionotropic NMDA and AMPA/KA receptors. Receptors of the KA type (AMPA insensitive) or metabotropic receptors appear not to be involved.     

Protective Effects of Antioxidants Against Cadmium-induced Oxidative Damage in Rat Testes

The protective effects of melatonin, vitamin E, and selenium alone or in combination were tested against cadmium-induced oxidative damage in rat testes. A total of 60 male rats were equally divided into five study groups, one of which acted as control receiving subcutaneous injections of physiological saline. The remaining four groups were treated with subcutaneous injections of cadmium chloride at a dose of 1 mg/kg weight. The first study group received no treatment. The second group was treated with a combination of 60 mg/kg vitamin E and 1 mg/kg sodium selenite. Group 3 was treated with 10 mg/kg melatonin, and the fourth group received a combination of vitamin E, sodium selenite, and melatonin at the doses mentioned above. After 1 month, the animals were killed, and the testes were excised for histological inspection and determination of tissue malondialdehyde and the activity of superoxide dismutase. The animals receiving no treatment showed significantly higher malondialdehyde levels and reduced activity of the enzyme (p < 0.05). Treatment with antioxidants resulted in a significant reduction in malondialdehyde when compared to the nontreated animals (p < 0.05) and an increase in the superoxide dismutase activity that was almost the same as the controls. The combination of melatonin, vitamin E, and selenium appears to have the more profound effect against cadmium-induced testicular injury.     

Live Imaging of Dense-core Vesicles in Primary Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

Observing and characterizing dynamic cellular processes can yield important information about cellular activity that cannot be gained from static images. Vital fluorescent probes, particularly green fluorescent protein (GFP) have revolutionized cell biology stemming from the ability to label specific intracellular compartments and cellular structures. For example, the live imaging of GFP (and its spectral variants) chimeras have allowed for a dynamic analysis of the cytoskeleton, organelle transport, and membrane dynamics in a multitude of organisms and cell types [1-3]. Although live imaging has become prevalent, this approach still poses many technical challenges, particularly in primary cultured neurons. One challenge is the expression of GFP-tagged proteins in post-mitotic neurons; the other is the ability to capture fluorescent images while minimizing phototoxicity, photobleaching, and maintaining general cell health. Here we provide a protocol that describes a lipid-based transfection method that yields a relatively low transfection rate (~0.5%), however is ideal for the imaging of fully polarized neurons. A low transfection rate is essential so that single axons and dendrites can be characterized as to their orientation to the cell body to confirm directionality of transport, i.e., anterograde v. retrograde. Our approach to imaging GFP expressing neurons relies on a standard wide-field fluorescent microscope outfitted with a CCD camera, image capture software, and a heated imaging chamber. We have imaged a wide variety of organelles or structures, for example, dense-core vesicles, mitochondria, growth cones, and actin without any special optics or excitation requirements other than a fluorescent light source. Additionally, spectrally-distinct, fluorescently labeled proteins, e.g., GFP and dsRed-tagged proteins, can be visualized near simultaneously to characterize co-transport or other coordinated cellular events. The imaging approach described here is flexible for a variety of imaging applications and can be adopted by a laboratory for relatively little cost provided a microscope is available.     

Alteration of Amino Acid Metabolism in Epileptogenic Mice by Elevation of Brain Pyridoxal Phosphate

A single intraperitoneal injection of pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP) in a species of mouse, DBA/2J, that is normally susceptible to sound-induced convulsion exacerbated its epileptic condition. The effect of injection was most pronounced about 30 min after the administration and subsided gradually within the following 4 h. Correlated with this increased seizure susceptibility were enhanced levels of synaptosomal aspartate and glutamate, and a diminished gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) level. The concentrations of nonneuroactive amino acids remained unchanged. When stimulated with veratrine, synaptosomes prepared from PLP-injected mice showed an increased release of aspartate and glutamate and a decreased release of GABA compared to those prepared from control mice. The activity of glutamate decarboxylase in the brains of PLP-treated mice was lowered, whereas the activity of GABA-transaminase was enhanced. Finally, the epileptic condition of DBA mice could be ameliorated by maintenance on a diet composed of vitamin B6-deficient feed and cellulose.     

Novel Glutamate Receptor Antagonists Selectively Protect Against Kainic Acid Neurotoxicity in Cultured Cerebral Cortex Neurons

The effect on excitatory amino acid (EAA)-induced toxicity of two novel non-N-methyl-D-aspartate (non-NMDA) antagonists 2-amino-3-[3-(carboxymethoxy)-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl]propionic acid (AMOA) and 2-amino-3-[2-(3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazol-4-yl)methyl-5-methyl-3- oxoisoxazolin-4-yl]propionic acid (AMNH) was tested in primary cultures of cerebral cortex neurons. Such cultures provide a useful model for the investigation of the toxicity of EAAs and a convenient screening system for potential neuroprotective activity of pharmacological agents. It was demonstrated that AMNH and AMOA abolished neurotoxicity induced by kainic acid with IC50 values of 62 +/- 10 and 120 +/- 19 microM, respectively. No effect on neuronal damage induced by NMDA or AMPA could be detected.     

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of GFP-tagged proteins. Using a strong excitation laser, the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged protein is bleached in the region of interest. The fluorescence of the region recovers when the unbleached GFP-tagged protein from outside of the region diffuses into the region of interest. The mobility of the protein is then analyzed by measuring the fluorescence recovery rate. This technique could be used to characterize protein mobility and turnover rate.In this study, we express the (enhanced green fluorescent protein) EGFP vector in cultured hippocampal neurons. Using the Zeiss 710 confocal microscope, we photobleach the fluorescence signal of the GFP protein in a single spine, and then take time lapse images to record the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Finally, we estimate the percentage of mobile and immobile fractions of the GFP in spines, by analyzing the imaging data using ImageJ and Graphpad softwares.This FRAP protocol shows how to perform a basic FRAP experiment as well as how to analyze the data.     

丙二醛对大鼠海马神经元结构的破坏和钙离子稳态的影响

脂质过氧化中间产物丙二醛(Malondialdehyde,MDA)在生物体内表现了广泛的生物毒性,MDA也是机体过度训练和运动性疲劳的重要生理指标.采用光学显微镜和透射式电子显微镜观察不同浓度MDA作用后海马神经元形态和超微结构的变化,并采用荧光分光光度法测定原代培养的海马神经元中Ca2+-ATPase活性的变化和胞质游离钙离子水平的变化,探讨MDA对海马神经元形态和结构上的破坏及神经元钙离子稳态的影响.在光镜下可观察到MDA作用下神经元突触变短,胞体肿胀,出现细胞死亡或凋亡的形态特征;在电镜下可观察到线粒体结构的明显破坏,内膜上的嵴颗粒减少或消失;同时MDA还通过抑制质膜Ca2+-ATPase的活性和其它的途径,破坏神经元胞质游离Ca2+稳态.结果表明,MDA可通过破坏海马神经元的结构和影响胞质中钙离子稳态,破坏神经元的生理功能,在机体运动性中枢疲劳形成中可能发挥重要作用.     

Glutamate-Induced Loss of Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II Activity in Cultured Rat Hippocampal Neurons

Abstract: The exposure of cultured rat hippocampal neurons to 500 µ M glutamate for 20 min induced a 55% decrease in the total Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM kinase II) activity. The Ca²⁺-independent activity and autophosphorylation of CaM kinase II decreased to the same extent as the changes observed in total CaM kinase II activity, and these decreases in activities were prevented by pretreatment with MK-801, an N -methyl- d -aspartate (NMDA)-type receptor antagonist, and the removal of extracellular calcium but not by antagonists against other types of glutamate receptors and protease inhibitors. Similarly, the decrease in the CaM kinase II activity was induced by a Ca²⁺ ionophore, ionomycin. Immunoblot analysis with the anti-CaM kinase II antibody revealed a significant decrease in the amount of the enzyme in the soluble fraction, in contrast with the inverse increase in the insoluble fraction; thus, the translocation was probably induced during treatment of the cells with glutamate. These results suggest that glutamate released during brain ischemia induces a loss of CaM kinase II activity in hippocampal neurons, by stimulation of the NMDA receptor, and that inactivation of the enzyme may possibly be involved in the cascade of the glutamate neurotoxicity following brain ischemia.     

Involvement of Different Types of Ca2+ Currents in the Control of the Efficiency of Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission between Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

We recorded evoked inhibitory post-synaptic currents (eIPSC) from a post-synaptic unit in a pair of synaptically connected cultured hippocampal neurons using a voltage-clamp technique in the whole-cell configuration and extracellular electrical stimulation of the pre-synaptic axon. Thirty-six neuronal pairs were examined. Dissimilar pharmacological sensitivities of eIPSC to a number of inorganic and organic blockers made it possible to estimate the involvement of different types of Ca²⁺ currents in Ca²⁺ entry into the presynaptic terminal and initiation of neurotransmitter release. Application of specific blockers of high-threshold Ca²⁺ channels allowed us to demonstrate that Ca²⁺ entry into presynaptic terminals of cultured hippocampal neurons is provided mostly by the system of high-threshold Ca²⁺ channels of the N- and P/Q-subtypes. The involvement of the L-subtype Ca²⁺ channels in the control of inhibitory transmission under study is insignificant.     

Characterization of Na+-Dependent Phosphate Uptake in Cultured Fetal Rat Cortical Neurons

Abstract: Our laboratory has recently cloned and expressed a brain- and neuron-specific Na⁺-dependent inorganic phosphate (P_i) cotransporter that is constitutively expressed in neurons of the rat cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. We have now characterized Na⁺-dependent ³²P_i cotransport in cultured fetal rat cortical neurons, where >90% of saturable P_i uptake is Na⁺-dependent. Saturable, Na⁺-dependent ³²P_i uptake was first observed in primary cultures of cortical neurons at 7 days in vitro (DIV) and was maximal at 12 DIV. Na⁺-dependent P_i transport was optimal at physiological temperature (37°C) and pH (7.0–7.5), with apparent K_m values for P_i and Na⁺ of 54 ± 12.7 µM and 35 ± 4.2 mM, respectively. A reduction in extracellular Ca²⁺ markedly reduced (>60%) Na⁺-dependent P_i uptake, with a threshold for maximal P_i import of 1–2.5 mM CaCl₂. Primary cultures of fetal cortical neurons incubated in medium where equimolar concentrations of choline were substituted for Na⁺ had lower levels of ATP and ADP and higher levels of AMP than did those incubated in the presence of Na⁺. Furthermore, a substantial fraction of the ³²P_i cotransported with Na⁺ was concentrated in the adenine nucleotides. Inhibitors of oxidative metabolism, such as rotenone, oligomycin, or dinitrophenol, dramatically decreased Na⁺-dependent P_i import rates. These data establish the presence of a Na⁺-dependent P_i cotransport system in neurons of the CNS, demonstrate the Ca²⁺-dependent nature of ³²P_i uptake, and suggest that the neuronal Na⁺-dependent P_i cotransporter may import P_i required for the production of high-energy compounds vital to neuronal metabolism.     

甘丙肽2型受体对氧化应激海马神经元自噬的调控作用及机制研究

本研究旨在解析仔猪脑海马甘丙肽2型受体(galanin receptors type 2,GALR2)参与氧化应激调节的分子机制.本研究基于成功构建的仔猪活体和大鼠海马神经元氧化应激模型,采用实时PCR技术考察仔猪脑海马和大鼠海马神经元GALR2的表达变化.并采用实时PCR、蛋白质印迹法及透射电镜技术进一步探索GALR...     

Synergistic Effects of Acetylcholine and Glutamate on the Release of Arachidonic Acid from Cultured Striatal Neurons

Abstract: The activation of muscarinic and NMDA receptors by carbachol and NMDA, respectively, stimulated the release of [³H]arachidonic acid ([³H]AA) from cultured striatal neurons. Striking synergistic effects were observed when both agonists were coapplied. This synergistic response was suppressed by atropine or (5R, 10S)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine hydrogen maleate and inhibited by magnesium. It was markedly reduced in the absence of external calcium and suppressed by mepacrine. NMDA strongly elevated the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i), but carbachol was ineffective. Ionomycin, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate, or potassium depolarization, which increased [Ca²⁺]_i but was ineffective on [³H]AA release, also potentiated the carbachol response. Sphingosine and Ro 31-8220 suppressed the responses evoked by carbachol, NMDA, or both agonists. However, no synergistic responses could be observed when phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate was associated with either carbachol or NMDA. Together, these results suggest that both the massive influx of calcium induced by NMDA and the coupling of muscarinic receptors with a putative phospholipase A₂ are required for the strong synergistic effects of carbachol and NMDA on [³H]AA release. Synergistic effects were also observed with acetylcholine and glutamate in the presence of magnesium, further revealing the physiological relevance of this process.     

Cell Surface Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Syndecan-2 Induces the Maturation of Dendritic Spines in Rat Hippocampal Neurons

Dendritic spines are small protrusions that receive synapses, and changes in spine morphology are thought to be the structural basis for learning and memory. We demonstrate that the cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-2 plays a critical role in spine development. Syndecan-2 is concentrated at the synapses, specifically on the dendritic spines of cultured hippocampal neurons, and its accumulation occurs concomitant with the morphological maturation of spines from long thin protrusions to stubby and headed shapes. Early introduction of syndecan-2 cDNA into immature hippocampal neurons, by transient transfection, accelerates spine formation from dendritic protrusions. Deletion of the COOH-terminal EFYA motif of syndecan-2, the binding site for PDZ domain proteins, abrogates the spine-promoting activity of syndecan-2. Syndecan-2 clustering on dendritic protrusions does not require the PDZ domain-binding motif, but another portion of the cytoplasmic domain which includes a protein kinase C phosphorylation site. Our results indicate that syndecan-2 plays a direct role in the development of postsynaptic specialization through its interactions with PDZ domain proteins.     

Toxic Effects of Iron for Cultured Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons Derived from Rat Embryonic Brains

Iron, a transition metal possibly involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, was tested for its toxic effects toward cultures of dissociated rat mesencephalic cells. When cultures were switched for 24 h to serum-free conditions, the effective concentrations of ferrous iron (Fe2+) producing a loss of 50% of dopaminergic neurons, as quantified by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunocytochemistry, TH mRNA in situ hybridization, and measurement of TH activity, were on the order of 200 microM. High-affinity dopamine (DA) uptake, which reflects integrity and function of dopaminergic nerve terminals, was impaired at significantly lower concentrations (EC50 = 67 microM). Toxic effects were not restricted to dopaminergic neurons inasmuch as trypan blue dye exclusion index and gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake, two parameters used to assess survival of other types of cells present in these cultures, were also affected. Protection against iron cytotoxicity was afforded by desferrioxamine and apotransferrin, two ferric iron-chelating agents. Normal supplementation of the culture medium by serum proteins during treatment was also effective, presumably via nonspecific sequestration. Potential interactions with DA were also investigated. Fe2+ at subtoxic concentrations and desferrioxamine in the absence of exogenous iron added to the cultures failed to potentiate or reduce DA cytotoxicity for mesencephalic cells, respectively. Transferrin, the glycoprotein responsible for intracellular delivery of iron, was ineffective in initiating selective cytotoxic effects toward dopaminergic neurons preloaded with DA. Altogether, these results suggest (a) that ferrous iron is a potent neurotoxin for dopaminergic neurons as well as for other cell types in dissociated mesencephalic cultures, acting likely via autoxidation into its ferric form, and (b) that the presence of intra- and extracellular DA is not required for the observed toxic effects.     

缺氧缺糖对培养海马神经细胞中一氧化氮和钙离子的影响

在缺血性脑损伤中 ,NO起着重要作用。研究了原代培养的海马神经细胞中 ,缺氧缺糖对NO合成的影响。利用激光共聚焦显微镜和荧光指示剂 ,对胞内钙离子和NO的变化进行实时检测 ,并用HPLC检测了缺氧缺糖导致的谷氨酸释放。结果表明 ,缺氧缺糖引起胞内钙离子浓度升高和NO合成增加。经过 2 0min缺氧缺糖处理后 ,胞外谷氨酸的浓度比对照组高出约10 0 %。N 甲基 D 天冬氨酸 (N methyl D aspartate,NMDA)的拮抗剂MK 80 1对缺氧缺糖引起的细胞内钙离子和NO的升高有明显抑制作用。去除细胞外液的钙离子和加入钙调蛋白抑制剂三氟拉嗪都可以抑制缺氧缺糖引起的NO升高。以上结果提示 ,缺氧缺糖引起神经细胞NO合成增加 ,这种合成受谷氨酸释放 ,胞内钙离子浓度和钙调蛋白的调控。     

Fluorescence and Bioluminescence Imaging of Subcellular Ca2+ in Aged Hippocampal Neurons

Susceptibility to neuron cell death associated to neurodegeneration and ischemia are exceedingly increased in the aged brain but mechanisms responsible are badly known. Excitotoxicity, a process believed to contribute to neuron damage induced by both insults, is mediated by activation of glutamate receptors that promotes Ca²⁺ influx and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ overload. A substantial change in intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis or remodeling of intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis may favor neuron damage in old neurons. For investigating Ca²⁺ remodeling in aging we have used live cell imaging in long-term cultures of rat hippocampal neurons that resemble in some aspects aged neurons in vivo. For this end, hippocampal cells are, in first place, freshly dispersed from new born rat hippocampi and plated on poli-D-lysine coated, glass coverslips. Then cultures are kept in controlled media for several days or several weeks for investigating young and old neurons, respectively. Second, cultured neurons are loaded with fura2 and subjected to measurements of cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration using digital fluorescence ratio imaging. Third, cultured neurons are transfected with plasmids expressing a tandem of low-affinity aequorin and GFP targeted to mitochondria. After 24 hr, aequorin inside cells is reconstituted with coelenterazine and neurons are subjected to bioluminescence imaging for monitoring of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ concentration. This three-step procedure allows the monitoring of cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ responses to relevant stimuli as for example the glutamate receptor agonist NMDA and compare whether these and other responses are influenced by aging. This procedure may yield new insights as to how aging influence cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ responses to selected stimuli as well as the testing of selected drugs aimed at preventing neuron cell death in age-related diseases.