Enhancing itaconic acid production by Aspergillus terreus

Aspergillus terreus is successfully used for industrial production of itaconic acid. The acid is formed from cis-aconitate, an intermediate of the tricarboxylic (TCA) cycle, by catalytic action of cis-aconitate decarboxylase. It could be assumed that strong anaplerotic reactions that replenish the pool of the TCA cycle intermediates would enhance the synthesis and excretion rate of itaconic acid. In the phylogenetic close relative Aspergillus niger, upregulated metabolic flux through glycolysis has been described that acted as a strong anaplerotic reaction. Deregulated glycolytic flux was caused by posttranslational modification of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK1) that resulted in formation of a highly active, citrate inhibition-resistant shorter form of the enzyme. In order to avoid complex posttranslational modification, the native A. niger pfkA gene has been modified to encode for an active shorter PFK1 fragment. By the insertion of the modified A. niger pfkA genes into the A. terreus strain, increased specific productivities of itaconic acid and final yields were documented by transformants in respect to the parental strain. On the other hand, growth rate of all transformants remained suppressed which is due to the low initial pH value of the medium, one of the prerequisites for the accumulation of itaconic acid by A. terreus mycelium.     

Production of itaconic acid from pentose sugars by Aspergillus terreus

Itaconic acid (IA), an unsaturated 5‐carbon dicarboxylic acid, is a building block platform chemical that is currently produced industrially from glucose by fermentation with Aspergillus terreus. However, lignocellulosic biomass has potential to serve as low‐cost source of sugars for production of IA. Research needs to be performed to find a suitable A. terreus strain that can use lignocellulose‐derived pentose sugars and produce IA. One hundred A. terreus strains were evaluated for the first time for production of IA from xylose and arabinose. Twenty strains showed good production of IA from the sugars. Among these, six strains (NRRL strains 1960, 1961, 1962, 1972, 66125, and DSM 23081) were selected for further study. One of these strains NRRL 1961 produced 49.8 ± 0.3, 38.9 ± 0.8, 34.8 ± 0.9, and 33.2 ± 2.4 g IA from 80 g glucose, xylose, arabinose and their mixture (1:1:1), respectively, per L at initial pH 3.1 and 33°C. This is the first report on the production of IA from arabinose and mixed sugar of glucose, xylose, and arabinose by A. terreus. The results presented in the article will be very useful in developing a process technology for production of IA from lignocellulosic feedstocks. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 33:1059–1067, 2017     

Production of itaconic acid by Aspergillus terreus immobilized in polyacrylamide gels

Summary Living Aspergillus terreus cells were entrapped in polyacrylamide gels and employed in both replacement batch and continuous column reactors to produce itaconic acid from glucose.With the replacement batch reactor, maximum itaconic acid productivity was observed under the following conditions: pH 2.50, temperature at 35°C, addition of NH₄H₂PO₄ and MgSO₄·7H₂O. Using the continuous reactor, the maximum itaconic acid yield was 60 mg/h/40 g of gel. The biocatalyst activity or half-life was about 10 days.     

Biosynthesis of itaconic acid by aspergillus terreus

Summary The formation of itaconic, aconitic and other acids from glucose in the presence of some enzyme inhibitors or organic acids by Aspergillus terreus was studied. Moreover, the metabolic activities of the preformed mats when floated on solutions of some organic acids were traced.When the resulting information were collected together a presumed condensation reaction between acetate and succinate could be formulated. The reaction product, presumably 1, 2, 3 propane tricarboxylic acid, would undergo a dehydrogenation reaction to yield aconitic acid and subsequently itaconic acid. It has also been suggested that aconityl CoA may be the metabolic form which suits the reactions leading to the formation of itaconic acid. The presumed aconityl CoA may be formed either through a condensation reaction between acetyl CoA and succinate or acetate with succinyl CoA.     

Oxygen requirement and energy relations of itaconic acid fermentation by Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960

The effect of interrupting aeration on itaconic acid fermentation by A. terreus NRRL 1960 has been studied. Under the conditions used, stopping aeration for 5 min led to a complete cessation of itaconic acid production, which was only slowly restored after 24 h when aeration was resumed. After a 5-min break in aeration and in the presence of 0.1 mM cycloheximide no itaconic acid was formed even after 3 days. It seems that, upon oxygen shortage, a rapid destruction of the itaconic-acid-producing mechanism takes place, which is restored only aerobically in a slow process involving protein synthesis. Itaconic acid fermentation is also effectively stopped by metabolic inhibitors of ATP formation, pointing to the need for biochemical energy in maintaining the fermentation. ATP is possibly needed to maintain a proper physiological (i.e. near neutral) pH inside the cells, counteracting the acid produced in the fermentation process and the low external pH (below 2.0). Inhibitors of plasma membrane ATPase have no effect on itaconic acid fermentation. This indicates that the plasma membrane might be impermeable to H⁺ and that ATP might rather be involved in the transport of itaconic acid out of the cell. It is suggested that insufficient aeration may leads to insufficient production of ATP which, in turn, leads to damage of the metabolic machinery by acid produced in the fermentation process.     

Continuous production of itaconic acid by Aspergillus terreus immobilized in a porous disk bioreactor

Summary Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960 was grown on porous disks rotating intermittently in and out of the liquid phase. This immobilized fungal cell bioreactor was used to produce itaconic acid from glucose in a continuous operation. The effect of temperature, pH, disk rotation speed, and feed rate on the itaconic acid concentration and volumetric productivity were studied. The highest itaconic acid concentration and volumetric productivity obtained were 18.2 g/l and 0.73 g/l·h, respectively, under the following conditions: temperature at 36°C, pH 3.0, disk rotation speed at 8 rpm, and feed rate at 60 ml/h. These results are better than those by conventional fermentation or by other immobilized method.Nomenclature F feed rate (l/h) - K _1s saturation constant for immobilized cells (g/l) - K _2s saturation constant for suspended cells (g/l) - M ₁ increased mass of immobilized cells (g) - M ₂ total mass of immobilized cells (g) - P concentration of itaconic acid (g/l) - S substrate concentration in and out of the reactor (g/l) - S ₀ substrate concentration in the feed (g/l) - V liquid volume of the reactor (1) - X concentration of the suspended cells (g/l) - Y ₁ apparent yield of the immobilized cells (g cells/g substrate) - Y ₂ apparent yield of the suspended cells (g cell/g substrate) - Y ₃ apparent yield of itaconic acid (g itaconic acid/g substrate) - m ₁ maintenance and by-products coefficient of the immobilized cells (g substrate/g cell·h) - m ₂ maintenance and by-products coefficient of the suspended cells (g substrate/g cell·h) - µ_1max maximum specific growth rate of the immobilized cells (h^-1) - µ_2max maximum specific growth rate of the suspended cells (h^-1)     

Effect of dissolved oxygen concentration and impeller tip speed on itaconic acid production by Aspergillus terreus

Summary Effect of aeration rate and impeller tip speed on mycelium growth and itaconic acid production was investigated in a batch culture of Aspergillus terreus IFO-6365. When impeller tip speed was 94.2 cm/sec at a fixed aeration rate of 0.5 vvm, itaconic acid concentration was 3.6 and 1.6 times higher than those in the impeller tip speed of 62.8 and 125.7 cm/sec, respectively. When an oxygen-enriched air was supplied at a fixed impeller tip speed of 94.2 cm/sec and dissolved oxygen concentration was maintained in the 20–60 % range, both itaconic acid concentration and mycelium growth were not affected by the dissolved oxygen concentration.     

Catabolism of itaconic acid by preformed mats of aspergillus terreus

Summary The breakdown of itaconic acid by preformed mats of a local strain of Aspergillus terreus was studied using the zone-strip technique. Low p_H values restrained the uptake of itaconic acid and the accumulation of various other acids while higher p_H values exerted an opposite effect. The results obtained when using various enzyme inhibitors were those anticipated on basis of the direct transformation of itaconic to aconitic acid through the fixation of CO₂ and of the existence of the T.A.C. (tricarboxylic acid cycle) as a main metabolic channel operating in this organism.     

ImmobilizedAspergillus terreus in itaconic acid production from glucose

Summary The production of itaconic acid by immobilizedAspergillus terreus TKK 200-5-1 was studied both in shake flask cultures, and in continuous column bioreactors. The effect of glucose and ammonium nitrate concentrations, and of pH were examined using a statistical experimental plan. The highest itaconic acid product concentration could be reached at the highest investigated glucose concentration of 150 g/l and the highest initial pH of 3.75, in the absence of ammonium nitrate. In a continuous packed bed column system operated fro 4.5 months itaconic acid was obtained at a productivity of 328 mg/d per gram of polyurethane foam carrier.     

Factors affecting the growth form of Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960 in relation to itaconic acid fermentation

The effect of medium composition on the growth form of Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960 in relation to itaconic acid fermentation has been studied. Four types of mycelial pellets were obtained under the conditions used and may be classified as (a) frayed and loose with 0.1–0.5 mm diameter (b) compact with 0.1–0.5 mm diameter (c) loose with 0.5–2.0 mm diameter and (d) compact with 0.5–2.0 mm diameter. Their respective maximum specific rates of formation and yields of itaconic acid, based on 100 g sucrose supplied, were (a) 1.25 mol mg^–1h^–1 and 55–59 g, (b) 0.27–0.43 mol mg^–1 h^–1 and 26–38 g, (c) 0.75–0.90 mol mg^–1 h^–1 and 45–51 g and (d) 0.12 mol mg^–1 h^–1 and 10 g. The presence of Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Fe²⁺ in the basal medium at concentrations of 23.3 mg/100 ml, 0.01 mg/100 ml and 0.006 mg/100 ml respectively were found to be adequate and crucial in obtaining the desired outgrowth for both high production rates and consistent yields of itaconic acid. The further addition of either commercial plaster of Paris or analytical-reagent-grade CaSO₄, especially when activated by heating to 530°C and present in excess of solubility, results in small and frayed pellets, which lead to itaconic acid yields of 55–59 g acid/100 g sugar supplied.     

Enhanced production of itaconic acid from corn starch and market refuse fruits by genetically manipulated Aspergillus terreus SKR10

A potent itaconic acid producing strain, Aspergillus terreus SKR10, was isolated from horticulture waste. Market refuse, apple and banana, were explored as novel substrates for itaconic acid production with yields of 20+/-2.0 and 20.0+/-1.0 g l(-1), respectively. Itaconic acid yields of 28.5+/-2.2 and 31.0+/-1.7 g l(-1) were obtained with acid and alpha-amylase hydrolyzed corn starch. The efficiency of itaconic acid production by this wild type strain was improved by ultraviolet, chemical and mixed mutagenic treatments. Two high itaconic acid yielding mutants, N45 and UNCS1 were obtained by gradient plating. These two mutants were capable of producing twice the yield of itaconic acid as the parent strain.     

Onychomycosis caused by Aspergillus terreus.

Four cases of onychomycosis caused by Aspergillus terreus are presented. The clinical characteristics consisted of spotted and striated leuconychia, dark spots and fragility of the nails. The mycology is described, and is shown that A. terreus has an inhibitory effect on the growth of dermatophytes and Scopulariopis brevicaulis. Topical treatment with 1% Pimafucin in a mixture of 60% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and 40% water as well as 9% aqueous solution of sodium benzoate were both effective. The literature concerning onychomycosis caused by A. terreus is summarized.     

Increased lovastatin formation by Aspergillus terreus using repeated fed-batch process

Lovastatin biosynthesis with Aspergillus terreus in batch fermentation reached 160 U/l in 161 h at pH 6.8 and a dissolved O tension maintained at 70%. At the end of repeated fed batch fermentations, the yield of lovastatin was increased by 37% though this took over twice as long as in the batch fermentation.