Evidence for Cryptic Speciation in Directly Transmitted Gyrodactylid Parasites of Trinidadian Guppies

Cryptic species complexes are common among parasites, which tend to have large populations and are subject to rapid evolution. Such complexes may arise through host-parasite co-evolution and/or host switching. For parasites that reproduce directly on their host, there might be increased opportunities for sympatric speciation, either by exploiting different hosts or different micro-habitats within the same host. The genus Gyrodactylus is a specious group of viviparous monogeneans. These ectoparasites transfer between teleosts during social contact and cause significant host mortality. Their impact on the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), an iconic evolutionary and ecological model species, is well established and yet the population genetics and phylogenetics of these parasites remains understudied. Using mtDNA sequencing of the host and its parasites, we provide evidence of cryptic speciation in Gyrodactylus bullatarudis, G. poeciliae and G. turnbulli. For the COII gene, genetic divergence of lineages within each parasite species ranged between 5.7 and 17.2%, which is typical of the divergence observed between described species in this genus. Different lineages of G. turnbulli and G. poeciliae appear geographically isolated, which could imply allopatric speciation. In addition, for G. poeciliae, co-evolution with a different host species cannot be discarded due to its host range. This parasite was originally described on P. caucana, but for the first time here it is also recorded on the guppy. The two cryptic lineages of G. bullatarudis showed considerable geographic overlap. G. bullatarudis has a known wide host range and it can also utilize a killifish (Anablepsoides hartii) as a temporary host. This killifish is capable of migrating overland and it could act as a transmission vector between otherwise isolated populations. Additional genetic markers are needed to confirm the presence of these cryptic Gyrodactylus species complexes, potentially leading to more in-depth genetic, ecological and evolutionary analyses on this multi-host-parasite system.     

Impacts of global warming on Nezara viridula and its native congeneric species

Climate change and biological invasion are two of the most important ecological issues. Nezara viridula (SGS) is a good example of an alien species that increased in response to recent land use changes and global warming. The range limit of SGS coincided with the 5 °C isotherm of the mean monthly temperature for January. Since 2000, it has been warm enough for SGS to overwinter successfully outside its original range. Most invaded areas are now either occupied by SGS only or by mixed species of Nezara indicating that SGS is replacing its congeneric species, Nezara antennata, through interspecific mating.SGS population dynamics studies performed during 1961–1965 demonstrated that SGS abundance was density dependent and the independent processes worked alternately during the breeding season and winter. Although global warming would improve the winter survival of SGS adults, population density would be regulated at a new equilibrium specific to the area.Life tables demonstrated that all traits related to reproduction were poorly realized in the 2nd generation that occurs during summer. Heat stress syndrome due to global warming may be becoming apparent in SGS in spite of its subtropical origin. N. antennata may be able to avoid heat stress by aestivation. Whether SGS could continue to have a higher reproductive potential at the cost of heat stress over N. antennata is a significant ecological issue.     

Winter coexistence in herbivorous waterbirds: Niche differentiation in a floodplain,Poyang Lake,China

The classical niche theory supports the idea that stable coexistence requires ecological differences between closely related species. However, information on waterbirds coexistence in the entirely landlocked freshwater system of Poyang Lake is not well understood, especially when the available biomass of their food in the area decreases. In this study, we tested the ecological segregation mechanisms in the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 wintering periods among eight herbivorous waterbirds (including the Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus, hooded crane Grus monacha, white‐naped crane Grus vipio, common crane Grus grus, greater white‐fronted goose Anser albifrons, bean goose Anser fabalis, swan goose Anser cygnoides, and tundra swan Cygnus columbianus) at Poyang Lake. Using field observations and species niche and foraging habitat selection models, we investigated the abundance, distribution, and food sources of these eight waterbird species to quantify and compare their habitat use and ecological niches. Our results showed that niche segregation among the waterbirds, with respect to food types, time, and spatial location, allow them to coexist and use similar resources. The water level gradually receded in the sub‐lakes of the Poyang Lake, which could provide food sources and various habitats for wintering herbivorous waterbirds to coexist. We demonstrated that the differences in habitat use could mitigate interspecific competition, which may explain the mechanism whereby waterbirds of Poyang Lake coexist during the wintering period, despite considerable overlap in the dietary niches of herbivorous waterbirds.     

A taxonomic study of the genusCalamagrostis on Mount Yakeishidake

Populations of seven species ofCalamagrostis growing on Mt. Yakeishidake were studied from a viewpoint of taxonomy. Four of them (C. sesquifolia, C. fauriei, C. matsumurae, C. gigas) were composed of tetraploid plants with 2n=28 and high pollen fertility.C. matsumurae andC. gigas had sympatric contacts, but no sign of their hybridization could be detected. The population ofC. sachalinensis on this mountain included hexaploids (2n=42) and octoploids (2n=56), and no obvious morphological or ecological differences could be found between them. The population ofC. sachalinensis was estimated to include various ecological races which may be continuously graded. InC. langsdorffi, only octoploid plants were found. Plants with 2n=56+0?1B were found in the population ofC. hakonensis. The pollen features of the collections ofC. langsdorffii, C. sachalinesis andC. hakonensis showed that apomictic seed formation may be more or less developed in them. Populations of these species on Mt. Yakeishidake were clearly separated morphologically. It was concluded that the populations of the seven species examined each have a unity and that strains ofC. langsdorffii, C. sachalinensis andC. hakonensis found on Mt. Yakeishidake are confined to those of a derived type.     

重庆市蝴蝶多样性环境健康指示作用和环境监测评价体系构建

在重庆市生态功能区蝴蝶多样性参数研究的基础上,进行区系相似性分析;选取22个蝴蝶多样性参数和5项主要环境因子指标,进行回归和主成分分析,进而探讨监测指标、监测种类和类群的选取与评价体系的建立。分析结果表明:当进行区域级的监测时,在22个指标中,种、科、属的多样性指数和均匀度指数可以忽略;5项环境指标中,人口压力(X22)因子重于面积比例(X18)、人口密度(X19)、林地比例(X20)、土地载有量(X21)等4项因子。选出物种数(X1),蝴蝶属(X2)、科级(X3)单元的多少,种类优势度(X9),各数量等级的物种数贡献率(X10—X13),人口压力(X22)及4个主成分的综合得分等10个因子,作为重庆市生态功能区环境健康状况的10个评价指标;和24个蝴蝶监测种类,12个蝴蝶监测类群一起,探讨评价方法,共同构筑了重庆市生态功能区环境监测评价体系。在此基础上,对各功能区环境健康状况的评价表明,功能区1的环境健康评价为非常健康,5、9、10区为健康功能区;2、3、6、7、14区为亚健康功能区;不健康功能区是4、8、11、12、13区。功能区13、14是城市化区域,它们的分值在14个区中,居第十二位和第七位,不是最低的,这表明城镇化与环境质量并不完全是因果关系,即通过绿化和环境保护,城镇环境是可能得到很好改善的。期望此监测评价体系在实践中进一步完善。     

Community level physiological study of algicidal bacteria in the phycospheres of Skeletonema costatum and Scrippsiella trochoidea

Bacteria in the phycosphere have a unique ecological relationship with host algae due to their utilization of algal extracellular products as nutrients. Some bacteria control the growth of algal cells and even lyse them. The diversity of bacteria and their community dynamics in the phycosphere of microalgae are still relatively little understood, especially of those associated with red tide-causing algae. In this study, scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of algal cell morphology revealed that the phycosphere bacteria of the red tide-causing algae, Skeletonema costatum and Scrippsiella trochoidea, could lyse them within 72 h. The community level physiology of the algicidal bacteria was studied using Biolog ECO microplates, a common method for the ecological study of microbial communities. The average well color development (AWCD) values of bacteria in the phycospheres of both species were low, indicating that the bacteria had low metabolic activity overall. The diversity indices were both lower than the bacterial diversity from natural environments. However, the bacteria associated with S. trochoidea demonstrated a higher AWCD value and diversity than those in the phycosphere of S. costatum. The utilization of carbon sources significantly changed at different lytic times, reflecting that the bacterial community structure changed during the algae-lysing process. These results revealed that the bacterial communities in phycospheres had a simple structure and low diversity. When the balance between algae and bacteria broke down, the total bacterial density increased while the algicidal bacteria accumulated and became the dominant species, changing the bacterial community structure in this micro-ecosystem.     

Cydippid ctenophores in the coastal waters of Svalbard: is it only Mertensia ovum?

Threat of potential arrival of non-indigenous species is increasing, particularly in the high Arctic, due to ecological shifts expected from climate change and increasing shipping traffic, facilitating long-distance transport of invaders. Hence, knowledge on the species present currently is crucial to assess the potential ecological impact of the non-indigenous species in the future. Ctenophores, and gelatinous zooplankton generally, are poorly known due to identification challenges and lack of systematic monitoring programmes. Yet, they are known to play important roles in the world’s ocean ecosystems and share physiological attributes making them exploit the changing environmental conditions better compared to most other zooplankton groups. Here, we report the co-occurrence of Mertensia ovum, Euplokamis sp. and an unidentified mertensiid-like species in the high Arctic, in the Svalbard archipelago region, based on a combination of morphological and molecular identification methods. This is a valuable first step toward establishing a baseline for future ecological studies, monitoring of climate impacts and assessing the threat of introduced species in the high Arctic.     

Habitat preferences of sympatric sandgrouse during the breeding season in Spain: a multi-scale approach

Predictive species’ distribution models may answer ecological questions about habitat selection, co-occurrence of species and competition between them. We studied the habitat preferences and segregation of two sympatric species of declining sandgrouse, the black-bellied sandgrouse (Pterocles orientalis) and the pin-tailed sandgrouse (Pterocles alchata), during the breeding season. We developed predictive models that related sandgrouse presence to environmental variables at three different spatial levels: large geographical, landscape and microhabitat scales. At the large geographical scale, differences between sandgrouse distributions, in the Iberian Peninsula, seem to be explained mainly in terms of bioclimatology: pin-tailed sandgrouse appear to be a more thermophilous species and occupy warmer sites usually located in flatter areas. At the landscape spatial level, in those areas that exhibit environmental conditions allowing for both species’ co-existence at a large geographical scale, black-bellied sandgrouse appear to be more tolerant to environmental variation than pin-tailed sandgrouse. At the microhabitat level, however, differences between species could be related to different flocking behaviour as a consequence of different sensitivities to vegetation structure and predators. Thus, the observed spatial distribution patterns are the result of different ecological factors that operate at different spatial levels. Conservation guidelines for these species should therefore consider their habitat preferences at large geographical, landscape and microhabitat scales.     

Enhancing planting stock quality of Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) by pre-cultivation in mini-plugs

Native species are important in ecological restoration of degraded forest ecosystems provided that their ecological engineering potential is exploited. Their failure to get established is usually due to the use of low-quality planting stock and adverse site conditions. Mini-plug transplants are a relatively new and promising production system in the forest nursery area. Objectives of our study were the evaluation of seedling production of Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) in mini-plug containers, the study of the effect of mini-plug density and substrate on planting stock quality, the comparison of the performance between mini-plug seedlings and the standard planting stock produced by Greek nurseries and the evaluation of physiological and morphological variables as predictive indicators of Italian cypress field performance. Our results showed that cypress seedlings could be produced using the mini-plug technique, resulting in higher quality seedlings than the standard stock type. Pre-cultivation of cypress seedlings under favorable conditions for a period of 5 weeks using peat and high mini-plug densities (1800–3500 mini-plugs m^?2) could be recommended. Grading of seedlings by using both easily measured morphological variables (root length, leaf area, root and shoot dry weight) and physiological tests, such as shoot electrolyte leakage, may improve survival and transplanting success. It is concluded that mini-plugs can serve ecological restoration of degraded forest ecosystems more efficiently than standard planting stock.     

Causes of secondary sexual differences in plants — Evidence from extreme leaf dimorphism in Leucadendron (Proteaceae)

In extreme cases leaves in male plants of the dioecious genus Leucadendron (Proteaceae) are up to an order of magnitude smaller than female leaves. This secondary sexual dimorphism (SSD) in leaf size has previously been suggested to be due to intra-male sexual selection, leading to an increase in male allocation to reproduction in dimorphic species. After critically evaluating previous data provided to support this hypothesis, I suggest on both theoretical grounds and on re-analysis that this argument is unlikely and unsupported. Leaf size dimorphism could theoretically evolve directly due to disruptive ecological selection between genders, leading to niche dimorphism either within or between habitats. I test this ecological causation hypothesis by providing data on specific leaf area (sla) and water use efficiency (δ ¹³C) of leaves from males and females of several Leucadendron species. Results confirm the expectation of minimal gender differences. I argue that leaf dimorphism is a consequence of selection on flower size and architecture.     

Linking ecology,morphology, and metabolism: Niche differentiation in sympatric populations of closely related species of the genus Littorina (Neritrema)

Divergence of ecological niches in phylogenetically closely related species indicates the importance of ecology in speciation, especially for sympatric species are considered. Such ecological diversification provides an advantage of alleviating interspecies competition and promotes more efficient exploitation of environmental resources, thus being a basis for ecological speciation. We analyzed a group of closely related species from the subgenus Neritrema (genus Littorina, Caenogastropoda) from the gravel‐bouldery shores. In two distant sites at the Barents and Norwegian Sea, we examined the patterns of snail distribution during low tide (quantitative sampling stratified by intertidal level, presence of macrophytes, macrophyte species, and position on them), shell shape and its variability (geometric morphometrics), and metabolic characteristics (metabolomic profiling). The studied species diversified microbiotopes, which imply an important role of ecological specification in the recent evolution of this group. The only exception to this trend was the species pair L. arcana / L. saxatilis, which is specifically discussed. The ecological divergence was accompanied by differences in shell shape and metabolomic characteristics. Significant differences were found between L. obtusata versus L. fabalis and L. saxatilis / L. arcana versus L. compressa both in shell morphology and in metabolomes. L. saxatilis demonstrated a clear variability depending on intertidal level which corresponds to a shift in conditions within the occupied microhabitat. Interestingly, the differences between L. arcana (inhabiting the upper intertidal level) and L. compressa (inhabiting the lower one) were analogous to those between the upper and lower fractions of L. saxatilis. No significant level‐dependent changes were found between the upper and lower fractions of L. obtusata, most probably due to habitat amelioration by fucoid macroalgae. All these results are discussed in the contexts of the role of ecology in speciation, ecological niche dynamics and conservatism, and evolutionary history of the Neritrema species.     

Spatial Scales of Pollen and Seed-Mediated Gene Flow in Tropical Rain Forest Trees

Gene flow via seed and pollen is a primary determinant of genetic and species diversity in plant communities at different spatial scales. This paper reviews studies of gene flow and population genetic structure in tropical rain forest trees and places them in ecological and biogeographic context. Although much pollination is among nearest neighbors, an increasing number of genetic studies report pollination ranging from 0.5–14 km for canopy tree species, resulting in extensive breeding areas in disturbed and undisturbed rain forest. Direct genetic measures of seed dispersal are still rare; however, studies of fine scale spatial genetic structure (SGS) indicate that the bulk of effective seed dispersal occurs at local scales, and we found no difference in SGS (Sp statistic) between temperate (N?=?24 species) and tropical forest trees (N?=?15). Our analysis did find significantly higher genetic differentiation in tropical trees (F _ST?=?0.177; N?=?42) than in temperate forest trees (F _ST?=?0.116; N?=?82). This may be due to the fact that tropical trees experience low but significant rates of self-fertilization and bi-parental inbreeding, whereas half of the temperate tree species in our survey are wind pollinated and are more strictly allogamous. Genetic drift may also be more pronounced in tropical trees due to the low population densities of most species.     

Iterative species distribution modelling and ground validation in endemism research: an Alpine jumping bristletail example

Endemic species play an important role in conservation ecology. However, knowledge of the real distribution and ecology is still scarce for many endemics. The aims of this study were to predict the distribution of the short-range endemic Alpine jumping bristletail Machilis pallida; to evaluate the actual level of endemism via ground validation using an iterative approach for testing the models in field trips and increasing the quality of the prediction step by step; and to test the potential of species distribution modelling for increasing the knowledge about the ecological niche. Based on seven known locations of M. pallida, we used species distribution modelling via Maxent. After a set of seven field trips a new model was built if new locations were found. Three such iterations were performed to increase model quality. We discovered four new locations of M. pallida, increasing the area of known distribution from 470 to 4,890?km². The distribution of M. pallida is thus wider than formerly known, but our results support Eastern Alpine endemism of the species. The knowledge about the ecological niche could be increased due to the newly found locations. Our study showcases the potential of the iterative approach of modelling and ground validation to evaluate the actual level of endemism and the ecological niche in Alpine species and beyond.     

Distribution of Recent ostracod species in the Lake Qinghai area in northwestern China and its ecological significance

In order to interpret the climate-change data using the ecological characteristics of the ostracods from the drill cores in Lake Qinghai, the distribution of Recent ostracods was studied in Lake Qinghai area. A total of 34 species belonging to the Ostracoda class of Crustacea were collected from different bodies of water in the Lake Qinghai area, and the ecological information for Recent ostracod species was studied. Among these 34 species, Cypris pubera, Eucypris dulcifons, Ilyocypris sp. 1, Ilyocypris sp. 2, Fabaeformiscandona caudata, Fabaeformiscandona hyalina, Herpetocypris reptans, Prionocypris gansenensis, Potamocypris villosa, Potamocypris smaragdina, Paralimnocythere compressa and Subulacypris sp. were first reported by us in the Lake Qinghai area. Some of the species identified exhibited cosmopolitan distributions, at least in the Holarctic region, but P. gansenensis and Ilyocypris echinata appeared to be restricted to the cold regions in northwestern China.The ecological significance of the primary ostracod species in the Lake Qinghai area was described according to the observations made during our time in the field and according to data from a number of reports. Our results indicate that the species diversity and abundance of ostracods may be related to water salinity in the Lake Qinghai area. The ecological information for ostracods can be used to distinguish different water environments and types based on the characteristics of one species or of an assemblage of several species.     

Genetic evidence of reproductive isolation in a remote enclave of Quercus pubescens in the presence of cross-fertile species

Peripheral populations may be crucial for understanding processes underlying adaptive genetic variation. Their evolution and ecology are driven by various genetic and demographic processes, such as selection, gene flow and bottleneck. Peripheral populations often experience a reduction in density resulting in the Allee effect. The presence of interfertile species increases the opportunity for hybridisation, which allows for a rescue from the Allee effect, but at the risk of genetic extinction through introgression. In this article we investigated a peripheral population of Quercus pubescens, a European tree species. The study population is located in Poland, several hundred kilometres northwards from the main species range. Due to geographic separation, the study population exists under strong pressure of introgression from potentially inter-fertile Q. petraea and Q. robur, which are the only common oaks in Poland. The intermediate morphology between typical Q. pubescens and a common oak species found in the study population supports the introgression hypothesis, which could be in line with the earlier studies of this species complex conducted in the main range of Q. pubescens. Alternatively, the intermediate morphology could reflect the founder effect or selection at an ecological extreme. We attempted to verify these hypotheses using microsatellites and a reference of common oak species. The results showed that the study population is genetically distinct from both Q. petraea and Q. robur. Additionally, the population is characterised by a low effective population size and limited gene dispersal. This suggests that the study population reveals strong reproductive isolation from common species, implying alternative sources of atypical morphology.     

Characterizing Pneumocystis in the Lungs of Bats: Understanding Pneumocystis Evolution and the Spread of Pneumocystis Organisms in Mammal Populations

Bats belong to a wide variety of species and occupy diversified habitats, from cities to the countryside. Their different diets (i.e., nectarivore, frugivore, insectivore, hematophage) lead Chiroptera to colonize a range of ecological niches. These flying mammals exert an undisputable impact on both ecosystems and circulation of pathogens that they harbor. Pneumocystis species are recognized as major opportunistic fungal pathogens which cause life-threatening pneumonia in severely immunocompromised or weakened mammals. Pneumocystis consists of a heterogeneous group of highly adapted host-specific fungal parasites that colonize a wide range of mammalian hosts. In the present study, 216 lungs of 19 bat species, sampled from diverse biotopes in the New and Old Worlds, were examined. Each bat species may be harboring a specific Pneumocystis species. We report 32.9% of Pneumocystis carriage in wild bats (41.9% in Microchiroptera). Ecological and behavioral factors (elevation, crowding, migration) seemed to influence the Pneumocystis carriage. This study suggests that Pneumocystis-host association may yield much information on Pneumocystis transmission, phylogeny, and biology in mammals. Moreover, the link between genetic variability of Pneumocystis isolated from populations of the same bat species and their geographic area could be exploited in terms of phylogeography.     

Glacial-relict symptoms in the Western Carpathian flora

Glacial relicts have been regionally more common in glacial than in recent times. A rigorous assessment of which species are indeed glacial relicts is extremely difficult because direct evidence is untraceable or equivocal for many species. We aimed to identify species of the Western Carpathian flora (vascular plants, bryophytes and terrestrial lichens) that display apparent biogeographical and ecological symptoms, suggesting a wider regional or supra-regional distribution during glacial times, or at least before the middle-Holocene climate optimum. We worked with the premise that exemplary relict species should tolerate continental and/or arctic climates, should have large distribution ranges with disjunctions, being regionally rare and ecologically conservative nowadays, should be associated with habitats that occurred during glacial times (tundra, steppe, peatland, open coniferous forest) and should display a restriction of ecological niches in the study region. The assessed species were primarily those with boreo-continental or artcic-alpine distribution. We demonstrated a conspicuous gradient of glacial-relict symptoms, with Carex vaginata, Betula nana, Trichophorum pumilum, Nephroma arcticum, Saxifraga hirculus and Cladonia stellaris topping the ranking. Based on the arbitrary ranking, 289 taxa can be considered high-probability relicts. For only a minority of them, there are any phylogeographical and/or palaeoecological data available from the study area. Biogeographical and ecological symptoms of 144 taxa suggest that they retreated rapidly after the Last Glacial Maximum whereas other species probably retreated later. The first principal component of biogeographical symptoms sorted species from circumpolar arctic-alpine species of acidic peatlands and wet tundra to strongly continental species of steppe, steppe-tundra and mineral-rich fens. This differentiation may mirror the altitudinal zonation of glacial vegetation in the Western Carpathians.     

Bacillus and biopolymer: Prospects and challenges

The microbially derived polyhydroxyalkanoates biopolymers could impact the global climate scenario by replacing the conventional non-degradable, petrochemical-based polymer. The biogenesis, characterization and properties of PHAs by Bacillus species using renewable substrates have been elaborated by many for their wide applications. On the other hand Bacillus species are advantageous over other bacteria due to their abundance even in extreme ecological conditions, higher growth rates even on cheap substrates, higher PHAs production ability, and the ease of extracting the PHAs. Bacillus species possess hydrolytic enzymes that can be exploited for economical PHAs production. This review summarizes the recent trends in both non-growth and growth associated PHAs production by Bacillus species which may provide direction leading to future research towards this growing quest for biodegradable plastics, one more critical step ahead towards sustainable development.     

Down under the southeastern Pacific: marine non-indigenous species in Chile

This article presents the first compilation of marine non-indigenous species (NIS) of algae and macro-invertebrates invading Chilean waters. A total of 32 cosmopolitan and non-cosmopolitan species are reported. Among them there are six species considered as extending their southern range of distribution in connection with El Niño events. The article highlights negative and positive impacts caused by marine NIS invasions. Among the first are Codium fragile var. tomentosoide, considered as a pest in Gracilaria chilensis aquaculture facilities in northern Chile, and Ciona intestinalis, a pest in scallop aquaculture installations. Among the second are bio-engineers species, such as the ascidian Pyura praeputialis and the sea grass Heterozostera tasmanica, which have caused an increase in local biodiversity and enhancement of nursery grounds via the creation of new habitats. Further more, invaders such as the algae Mastocarpus papillosus, Porphyra linearis and P. pseudolinearis represent new exploitable resources, extracted by coastal food gatherers along the coast (M. papillosus) or potential species to develop aquaculture. Additional information is presented on the anemone Anemonia alicemartinae, which appears to be a native species (?), having shown in the past 40–50 years, a geographical southward range extension of approximately 1900 km. The number of NIS reported for Chile is compared with those published for the southwestern Atlantic, South Africa, North America (Atlantic and Pacific coasts) and New Zealand. It is suggested that probably the low number of Chilean NIS is due to the fact that the Chilean coasts are environmentally less stressed than other coasts in the world, due to the scarcity of estuaries, gulfs, enclosed bays, lagoons and low human populations. These kinds of sheltered areas have been suggested as centers for bio-invasions, due to the high rate of human-mediated transfer and increase of pollutants. Furthermore, none of NIS reported from Chile show a fast geographical expansion rate (exception of A. alicemartinae), nor invading strategies such as those described for marine NIS in other latitudes, where notorious ecological unbalances following invasions have been observed. An alternative hypothesis is that the low number of marine NIS invading Chile is underestimated, since the modern list of species generated through specific taxonomically intensive port and harbor surveys is still lacking. Fifteen species (five invertebrate and 10 fish) have been deliberately imported to Chile for aquaculture. The invertebrates appear to be controlled within aquaculture facilities and have not established naturalized populations or caused direct ecological impacts on local communities. On the contrary, several millions of salmoniforms (and rainbow trout) have escaped from farming facilities in southern Chile and established naturalized populations. Studies on ecological impacts are lacking. These escapees are also playing a role in the enhancement of artisanal and sport fishery activities.