Parasites in pet reptiles

Exotic reptiles originating from the wild can be carriers of many different pathogens and some of them can infect humans. Reptiles imported into Slovenia from 2000 to 2005, specimens of native species taken from the wild and captive bred species were investigated. A total of 949 reptiles (55 snakes, 331 lizards and 563 turtles), belonging to 68 different species, were examined for the presence of endoparasites and ectoparasites. Twelve different groups (Nematoda (5), Trematoda (1), Acanthocephala (1), Pentastomida (1) and Protozoa (4)) of endoparasites were determined in 26 (47.3%) of 55 examined snakes. In snakes two different species of ectoparasites were also found. Among the tested lizards eighteen different groups (Nematoda (8), Cestoda (1), Trematoda (1), Acanthocephala (1), Pentastomida (1) and Protozoa (6)) of endoparasites in 252 (76.1%) of 331 examined animals were found. One Trombiculid ectoparasite was determined. In 563 of examined turtles eight different groups (Nematoda (4), Cestoda (1), Trematoda (1) and Protozoa (2)) of endoparasites were determined in 498 (88.5%) animals. In examined turtles three different species of ectoparasites were seen. The established prevalence of various parasites in reptiles used as pet animals indicates the need for examination on specific pathogens prior to introduction to owners.     

Corynebacterium Pseudotuberculosis Infection in Goats III.

Serological examinations for Gorynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in-fection were carried out in 14 known positive herds and in 1 herd that had beeni recently established through purchase of animals from different herds. Serum samples were collected sequentially on up to 4 occasions from animals during their first year of life. In most herds, these animals were examined clinically for superficial swellings once or twice during the same period. The adult goats in 8 infected herds were examined both clinically and serologically. Age distribution was similar in each of these herds. All serum samples were examined for antibodies against Gorynebac-terium pseudotuberculosis in both the bacterial agglutination test (BAT) and the hemolysis inhibition test (HIT). The proportion of kids which were seropositive in both tests de-creased to zero at 4 months of age. At the age of 11–12 months, the proportion of seropositive animals was about 50 % in the BAT and 30 % in the HIT. When examined when housed for the winter at the age of about 8 months (mean age), the prevalence of animals with superficial swellings was 7 %. At the age of about 1 year (mean age), 29 % of the examined animals had such lesions. In the recently established herd, only a few of the yearlings were seropositive. Titre values in BAT and HIT increased until 6 years of age. Anti-body titre values were significantly lower in yearlings than in older goats in both tests, P < 0.005. No significant difference in the propor-tion of goats with superficial swellings was seen at the different ages.     

Epidemiology of leptospirosis: observations on serological data obtained by a "diagnostic laboratory for leptospirosis" from 1995 to 2001

Serological data on leptospira infection were reported and discussed. From 1995 to 2001, the blood serum samples of 9885 domestic and wild animals and humans, living in Northern and Central Italy, were examined by the macroagglutination test (MAT) employing bratislava, ballum, canicola, grippotyphosa, icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona, hardjo and tarassovi serovars as antigens. Considering sera with > or = 1:400 antibody titers as positive, 674 (6.81%) animals scored positive. Sheep, horses, pigs and dogs gave the highest number of positive responses, particularly against the serovar bratislava and, for dogs, against icterohaemorrhagiae. The percentages of seropositivity observed in the most important animal species were: 12.13% in ovine (132 positive among 1088 tested animals), 11.40% in horses (107 positive animals among 938), 9.46% in swine (123 positive animals among 1299), 6.36% in dogs (278 positive animals among 4369), 2.39% in wild boars (11 positive animals among 459), 1.39% in deer (2 positive animals among 143), 0.48% in cattle (3 positive animals among 626). Among 250 human sera examined, 14 (5.60%) scored positive.     

Tick-borne diseases in ruminants of Central and Southern Italy: epidemiology and case reports

Sera and blood from cattle and sheep were examined for the presence of Babesia and Theileria spp by microscopy and serology at the Parasitology Department of the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale of Abruzzo and Molise (IZSAM). Of the 47 bovine herds (323 animals) tested, 15 were found positive for Babesia bigemina and 1 for Babesia bovis. Two outbreaks occurred, one caused by B. bigemina and one by B. bovis. The B. bigemina outbreak occurred in Abruzzo and has been followed for two years. The isolate of B. bigemina was very pathogenic leading to the death of two cows out of 57. The vector responsible of the transmission appeared to be Rhipicephalus bursa. Parasites were observed in the erythrocytes for 30 days whereas sera were positive to indirect immunofluorescence (IFA) for at least one year. The B. bovis outbreak occurred in the province of Mantova (Northern Italy) in a group of 70 beef cattle imported from France. The infection resulted in the death of 5 animals and severe illness in another 6. In contrast with what occurred for Babesia infection, no clinical cases were recorded in cattle when species of Theileria were detected by microscopy. Of the 24 bovine herds (252 animals) tested for Theileria, 21 were found positive for the T. "sergenti"/buffeli/orientalis group. Single and mixed infection of T. "sergenti" and T. buffeli/orientalis were detected in herds of cross-bred cattle from Abruzzo and Marche. The parasites were identified by using a polymerase chain reaction which amplified DNA encoding p32/34. Most of the collected ticks (90%) were adults of R. bursa whereas the others were adults of Hyalomma detritum. During the period the animals have been observed (18 months), no clinical cases have been recorded and no associations have been found between blood abnormalities and animals found infected with Theileria. Prevalences of subclinically infected carriers increased from February till December (95.4%) even if the animals were indoors and no ticks were present. The prevalence then dropped dramatically six months later (76.7%). In calves less than 1 year old, the prevalence of infection significantly (p<0.05) increased with age, however intraerythrocytic stages of Theileria were found in the blood of three newborn calves (<7 days of age). Of the 18 ovine flocks tested for Babesia spp. (150 animals examined), 1 was positive for B. ovis and 2 for B. motasi. B. motasi infection was not associated with symptoms, while an outbreak of babesiosis caused by B. ovis occurred in Abruzzo. The infection resulted in the death of 3 animals (0.75% of the flock), two rams (20% of the total number) and a ewe, and severe illness in another 5 ewes (2% of the flock). Specimens of R. bursa and R. turanicus were collected from the infected animals. Of the 18 flocks (150 animals) examined, 12 were microscopically positive for Theileria spp. No clinical cases were recorded and identification at species level was not possible on the basis of morphological criteria. The prevalence distribution of infected herds and infected animals within herds and flocks have been calculated by a Monte Carlo simulation model, running 10,000 iterations. The most likely levels of prevalence of infected herds and infected animals within herds found for the species observed were as follows: 20% for B. bigemina with a prevalence within herd of 27%, 11% for B. bovis (18% within herd), 10% for Babesia ovis (19% within herd), 10% for B. motasi (17.5% within herd), 63% for Theileria in cattle (66% within herd) and 51% for Theileria in sheep (55% within herd).     

Larvae of Elaphostrongylus cervi in a population of free-living red deer in Italy

Hunter-killed red deer (n = 68; Cervus elaphus) harvested from the Italian provinces of Bologna (Emilia Romagna) and Pistoia (Tuscany) (44 degrees 00'N 11 degrees 00'E) from October 2001 to January 2002 were examined for protostrongylid larvae. Twenty-eight animals (41%) had protostrongylid larvae in feces, lungs, and inguinal and iliac lymph nodes. Of these 28 animals, 20 were adults (71%), four were yearlings (14%), and four were calves (14%). Shape, length, width, and the location to the nematodes were consistent with Elaphostrongylus cervi, which has not been previously reported in Italy.     

Toxoplasmosis: a serological survey in Ontario wildlife

Sera from seven species of wild animals in Ontario were examined for antibody to Toxoplasma gondii using the Sabin-Feldman dye test. Of 158 sera tested, 53% of the red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 56% of the striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), 78% of the coyotes (Canis latrans), 33% of the black bears (Ursus americanus), 18% of the short tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda) and none of the field voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) had antibody. Antibody to T. gondii was present in sera from wild animals captured throughout southern Ontario. A positive linear correlation between prevalence of toxoplasmosis and age of fox pups was calculated (p < 0.005).     

A survey of Pneumocystis carinii infection in research mouse colonies in Japan.

To determine the frequency of Pneumocystis carinii infection in mouse colonies maintained for biomedical research in medical colleges or medical faculties in universities in Japan, 409 nu/nu mice were sent to 43 animal facilities from a P. carinii-free colony. The animals were housed for 6 months in groups of 3 to 10 animals per room, and examined for the presence of parasites and infection. Colonies in 10 (24.4%) of 41 facilities were positive for the infection. Of 383 animals in 69 rooms, the organism was detected in 66 (17.2%) animals in 13 (18.8%) rooms. The difference in the proportion of rooms where mice were positive for P. carinii is clearly seen among these three groups; SPF mouse rooms (4 of 38 rooms, 10.5%), SPF mouse rooms with breeding units (5 of 25 rooms, 20.0%) and conventional mouse rooms (4 of 6 rooms, 66.7%). The survey indicates that strict housing arrangements and husbandry techniques are necessary to keep SPF mice free from P. carinii infection.     

Genotype analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. prevalent in a rural village in Hwasun-gun, Republic of Korea

Two species of Cryptosporidium are known to infect man; C. hominis which shows anthroponotic transmission between humans, and C. parvum which shows zoonotic transmission between animals or between animals and man. In this study, we focused on identifying genotypes of Cryptosporidium prevalent among inhabitants and domestic animals (cattle and goats), to elucidate transmittal routes in a known endemic area in Hwasun-gun, Jeollanam-do, Republic of Korea. The existence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was confirmed using a modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain. Human infections were found in 7 (25.9%) of 27 people examined. Cattle cryptosporidiosis cases constituted 7 (41.2%) of 17 examined, and goat cases 3 (42.9%) of 7 examined. Species characterizations were performed on the small subunit of the rRNA gene using both PCR-RFLP and sequence analysis. Most of the human isolates were mixtures of C. hominis and C. parvum genotypes and similar PCR-RFLP patterns were observed in cattle and goat isolates. However, sequence analyses identified only C. hominis in all isolates examined. The natural infection of cattle and goats with C. hominis is a new and unique finding in the present study. It is suggested that human cryptosporidiosis in the studied area is caused by mixtures of C. hominis and C. parvum oocysts originating from both inhabitants and domestic animals.     

Conjugal transfer of plasmids and antibiotic resistance among Escherichia coli isolated from animals in a rural area in Sarawak (Malaysia)

Thirty-six strains of Escherichia coli isolated from animals in Bario, a remote area in Sarawak, Malaysia, were examined for presence of plasmid DNA and their susceptibility to nine antimicrobial agents. Of the total 36 isolates, five bovine and six canine isolates were found to contain plasmid DNA ranging in sizes from 2.6 to 70 kilobases. All were susceptible to chloramphenicol, erythromycin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid and neomycin but resistance to ampicillin (47%), erythromycin (19%), streptomycin (25%) and tetracycline (11%) was observed. Resistance was associated with carriage of a 47 kb (SC98), 70 kb, (SC133) and 56 and 4.6 kb (SC119) plasmids which were transmissible to the Escherichia coli K12 recipient. It is concluded that animals form a potential reservoir of R plasmids carrying E. coli in the study area.     

Trichinellosis of animals in Chukotka, USSR: A general review

During an examination, for trichinellosis, of 1489 mammals of 12 different species, in the territory of Chukotka National district (regions of Anadyr', Bering, Iul'tin, Chaun and Chukotka) and in the region of North-Even of Magadan province, Trichinella larvae were detected in 236 (16·4%) of these animals from 6 of the species: in 109 (44·8%) of the blue polar foxes kept in cages, in 12 (15·8%) of the silver-black foxes kept in cages, in 84 (18·2%) of the white polar foxes, in 17 (17·5%) of the common foxes, in 13 (12·1%) of the dogs and in the one European bear examined. Trichinella larvae were not found in 190 marine mammals examined: 178 ringed seals, 7 whales, 4 walruses, and 1 bearded seal, nor in the 8 Siberian squirrels and 159 domestic pigs examined. The high incidence of Trichinella infection amongst blue polar foxes and silver-black foxes on fur-animal farms in Chukotka, where the food ration of these animals is predominately the flesh of marine mammals (walruses and other pinnipeds), suggests that marine mammals may constitute one of the sources of infection to caged animals. In Chukotka, as in other regions of the Extreme North and North-East, the circulation of trichinae in nature may occur between two ecologically different groups of animals: terrestial and marine mammals. A wide distribution of trichinellosis among animals in nature, or kept in cages and among dogs in Chukotka National district and in the North-Even region of Magadan province provides a constant threat of infection to man. Thus the flesh and sub-products of potential hosts of trichinae (including dogs, fur animals, European and polar bears, marine mammals, etc.) should undergo thorough trichinelloscopy examination before being consumed by man. The flesh of sea mammals should be examined for trichinellosis before being used as food for animals; the presence of trichinae in it requires its sterilization.     

Age-Related Regional Changes in Hydroxyl Radical Stress and Antioxidants in Gerbil Brain

Abstract— The levels of hydroxyl radicals and oxidized GSH have been examined as indices of oxidative stress in young (3 months), middle-aged (15 months), and old (20–24 months) gerbil brain hippocampus, cortex, and striaturn. The hydroxyl radical stress was estimated by measuring the salicylate hydroxyl radical trapping products 2,5-and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. The stress was significantly higher in all three brain regions in middle-aged and old gerbils versus young animals (66.0%). Regional comparisons showed that the stress was significantly higher in cortex than in either the hippocampus or striatum of the middle-aged and old gerbils (32.0%). The ratio of oxidized to total GSH also increased progressively in middle-aged and old animals in all three brain regions (p < 0.05, 41.1%), further indicating a general age-related increase in oxidative stress. Parallel to this age-related increase in oxidative stress, a significant, albeit slight (8%), decrease in neuronal number in hippocampal CA1 region was observed in both the middle-aged and old animals. Possible differences in antioxidant levels were also examined. Total GSH levels were similar across age groups (variance <12%). However, the regional comparison showed that it was highest in striatum in all age groups. The levels of a-tocopherol (vitamin E) were significantly higher in the middle-aged and old animals in all three regions (70.4%). Vitamin E was highest in the hippocampus and the differences between the hippocampus and the cortex and striatum increased with age. Although of a lesser magnitude, significant increases in hippocampal total ascorbic acid level were also noted with age (p < 0.05, 10%). Ascorbic acid was the most regionally specific of the three antioxidants examined, with hippocampus > cortex > striatum for all age groups. The difference in ascorbic acid level between hippocampus and cortex also increased with age (64.4%). The results suggest that the general age-related, regionally specific increases in oxidative stress stimulate the accumulation of antioxidants. It is interesting that the hippocampus, which is selectively vulnerable to various insults such as ischemia, epilepsy, and insulin-induced hypoglycemia, exhibits the greatest age-related increase in vitamin E and ascorbic acid, perhaps reflective of a greater impact of the progressive increase in baseline oxidative stress.     

The incidences of spontaneous fetal anomalies in Japanese white rabbits (author's transl)]

The incidences of spontaneous fetal anomalies in coccidium-free Japanese white rabbits bred and kept in our laboratories are reported. Live fetuses were removed from 87 (95.6%) out of 91 maternal animals examined, totaling 538 (295 males and 243 females). of them, 9 fetuses (1.7%) showed external and visceral abnormalities such as hydrocephalia (5 cases), short tail (2), anophthalmia (1) and talipomanus flexa (1). Skeletal abnormalities were found in 7 (1.7%) of 424 fetues examined.     

Coccidia in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) are infected with three species of Eimeria: E. dromedarii (28.4%), E. rajasthani (22.2%), and E. cameli (19.2%); 41.6% of the animals examined were positive. The highest prevalence of infection was reported in the western region of the country. Mixed infection with two Eimeria species is most common; E. dromedarii was most frequently and generally the most predominant species. Eimeria dromedarii and E. rajasthani are described for the first time from Saudi Arabian camels.     

Microbial ecology of Bacillus thuringiensis: fecal populations recovered from wildlife in Korea

A total of 34 fecal samples, collected from 14 species of wild mammals in Korea, were examined for the occurrence of Bacillus thuringiensis. The organism was detected in 18 (53%) samples. Among the three food-habit groups, herbivorous animals yielded the highest frequency (69%) of samples positive for B. thuringiensis, followed by omnivorous animals (50%). Of the six fecal samples from carnivorous animals, only one sample contained B. thurin giensis. Among 527 isolates belonging to the Bacillus cereus - B. thuringiensis group, 43 (8%) were assigned to B. thurin giensis on the basis of the formation of parasporal inclusions. Of the 43 isolates, 13 were serologically allocated to the nine H-antigenic serotypes: H3ad (serovar sumiyoshiensis), H15 (dakota), H17/27 (tohokuensis/ mexicanensis), H19 (tochigiensis), H21 (colmeri), H29 (amagiensis), H31/49 (toguchini/muju), H42 (jinghongiensis), and H44 (higo). Other isolates were untestable or untypable by the 55 reference H antisera available. Insecticidal activity was associated with 23% of the fecal populations: three isolates killed larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera), and seven exhibited larvicidal activity against the mosquito, Aedes aegypti (Diptera). There was no larvicidal activity against the three lepidopterous insects: Plutella xylostella, Spodoptera exigua, and Spodoptera litura. The overall results suggest that wild animals in Korea are in contact with naturally occurring B. thuringiensis at high frequencies through the daily food intake of plants.     

Study on the ophthalmic diseases in ICR mice and BALB/c mice.

In pharmaceutical companies and research institutes, many toxicity tests are performed with laboratory animals. This study was performed to produce reference data for eye toxicity tests and to investigate the ophthalmic diseases of 408 ICR mice and 119 BALB/c mice, which are commonly used as subjects in toxicity tests. The experimental animals without clinical disorders were selected regardless of sex. The ophthalmic diseases were examined by using special ophthalmic instruments: direct ophthalmoscope, indirect ophthalmoscope, slit-lamp biomicroscope and focal illuminator. The most prevalent ocular variation within normal limits was hyaloid vessel remnant (ICR mice, 28.2%; BALB/c mice, 31.9%) and the incidence gradually decreased with age. The ocular diseases found in ICR mice were retinal degeneration (9.8%), corneal scar (4.2%), focal cataract (2.2%), anisocoria (1.2%), corneal ulcer (0.2%) and uveitis (0.2%). In BALB/c mice, corneal scar (9.2%), focal cataract (1.7%) and corneal ulcer (0.8%) were the ocular diseases found.     

Survey of mange mite infesting sheep in Riyadh region,Saudi Arabia

The study was performed to survey the Sarcoptic mange in sheep and the effect of infection on the local strains during a specific period in different regions of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A total of 1745 sheep were examined clinically and were selected from the suspected cases for laboratory investigation of skin scrapings for disease diagnosis. The examined animals included (509) Naimi, (396) Najdi, (518) Hurri, and (322) Rufidi native sheep.The results showed that the infestation rate was (12.77%) in all sheep. The highest strain was recorded (17.2%, 14.3%, 9.6%, and 8.6%), respectively. The infestation was highest in sheep over two years of age (15.2%) while it was lowest in sheep under two years of age (11.2 %). In addition, the infection rate in females was higher than in males. The prevalence of mange mites in females was (14%) compared to (11.2%) in males. The highest percentage of infestation was recorded in the head region at 67.2%, followed by that in the neck (4.4%), back (16.5%), tail (11.6%), and legs (0%).The presence of mange mites was discovered by microscopic examination of deep skin scrapings of infected animals that were identified morphologically. The infection was assured by histological investigations. This study revealed that mange mite is one of the most significant sheep health constraints in Riyadh. Therefore, proper prevention measures must be implemented to take into consideration other non-host-related risk factors.     

Causes of death in marine mammals stranded along the Oregon coast

Sixty-eight marine mammals stranded on the Oregon beaches were examined at necropsy. Gunshot was the primary cause of death in 30% of the pinnipeds examined. Bacterial infections (27%) and parasitism (27%) were also of major importance in the death and debilitation of Oregon marine mammals. Traumatic death or debilitation other than gunshot was observed in 11 animals (16%). Predation, starvation due to neonatal abandonment, viral encephalitis (presumptive diagnosis), dystocia and neoplasia were diagnosed as primary or contributory causes of stranding.     

Golden hamster myoid cells during active and inactive states of spermatogenesis: correlation of testosterone levels with structure

Myoid cells were examined quantitatively in adult golden hamsters with active spermatogenesis and compared with hamsters in which the testes were regressed due to a modification in the light-dark cycle. A detailed morphometric study was undertaken utilizing animals previously examined. The cell-surface area and volumes of most organelles were not significantly different in animals which were gonadally active as compared with regressed animals. A slight, but significant, increase in nuclear volume (31%) and a slight, but significant, decrease (28%) in cell volume were recorded for regressed animals. The total volume of pinocytotic vesicles was increased dramatically (approximately threefold) in active animals in comparison with inactive animals (P less than 0.01), indicating that an increase in non-specific transport across the myoid cell is associated with spermatogenic activity. Intravascularly injected horseradish peroxidase was capable of entering pinocytotic vesicles in both active and inactive animals. Plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) as well as plasma and testicular testosterone levels were weakly (r = 0.64, 0.68, and 0.65, respectively), but significantly (P less than 0.05), correlated with cell size. Plasma and testicular testosterone were correlated with the total volume of pinocytotic vesicles (r = 0.74 and 0.68, respectively). The data indicate that although the rat myoid cell possesses receptors for testosterone, there are few structural manifestations of the hamster myoid cell that correlate well with testosterone levels. Thus, the hamster myoid cell differs from two other hormone-responsive somatic cells in the testis, the Sertoli cell and the Leydig cell, that show dramatic structural alterations with changes in gonadal activity and striking correlations of structural features with functional measures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Corynebacterium Pseudotuberculosis Infection in Goats IV.

Adult animals from 2 herds were examined clinically and serologically, 5 (Herd A) and 4 (Herd B) times during the same period of 3% years. Serum samples were examined for antibodies against Gorynebac-terium pseudotuberculosis using the bacterial agglutination test (BAT) and the hemolysis inhibition test (HIT). The results of the first examination showed that no animal in Herd A was seropositive, while in Herd B 1 animal showed a high positive titre in BAT. The prevalence of animals with superficial swellings was then 2 % in Herd A and 4 % in Herd B. In both herds, the prevalence of animals with superficial swellings and seropositive reactions increased during the following 1–2 yeairs. About 30 % of animals had superficial lesions and close to 100 % were seropositive. The proportion, of animals with superficial swellings and seropositive reactions was almost constant on subsequent examinations. In some of the animals, superficial swellings were found during 2 or more of the examinations, a few animals having such lesions at the same site on both or all occasions. Animals in Herd A became infected through grazing together with goats from infected herds. Caseous lymphadenitis was introduced into Herd B by animals obtained from infected herds.     

Prevalence of Eimeria macusaniensis (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) in midwestern Lama spp

To compare the prevalence of Eimeria macusaniensis among midwestern llamas (Lama glama), alpacas (Lama pacos), and guanacos (Lama guanicoe), feces were obtained from Lama spp. in 10 states between October 1989 and February 1996. Feces were examined by centrifugal flotation in sugar solution (specific gravity--1.28-1.30), and oocysts were quantified by a modified McMaster method. Data were compared by host species and age classifications. Typical oocysts occurred in samples from 28% of 76 herds and 10.4% of 443 animals including 12% of 301 llamas, 7% of 115 alpacas, and 7.4% of 27 guanacos. Prevalence was significantly greater (P = 0.009) in animals < 1 yr of age in comparison to older animals for llams (22.1 v.s. 8.5%) and for all Lama spp. combined (17.1 vs. 8.4%). Fecal oocyst abundance was significantly greater (P = 0.001) in llamas < 1 yr of age in comparison to older llamas (30 vs. 16 oocysts per g of feces). Fecal oocyst intensities did not differ significantly. Prevalence in both age groups of midwestern llamas was greater than previously reported for llamas in the western United States. Prevalence in midwestern alpacas < 1 yr of age was lower than reported for alpacas of similar age in South America, but oocyst intensities were similar. These results indicate that infection with E. macusaniensis is more common in Lama spp. in North America than previously recognized.