Snake evolution in Melanesia: origin of the Hydrophiinae (Serpentes,Elapidae), and the evolutionary history of the enigmatic New Guinean elapid Toxicocalamus

The venomous snake subfamily Hydrophiinae includes more than 40 genera and approximately 200 species. Most members of this clade inhabit Australia, and have been well studied. But, because of poor taxon sampling of Melanesian taxa, basal evolutionary relationships have remained poorly resolved. The Melanesian genera Ogmodon, Loveridgelaps, and Salomonelaps have not been included in recent phylogenetic studies, and the New Guinean endemic, Toxicocalamus, has been poorly sampled and sometimes recovered as polyphyletic. We generated a multilocus phylogeny for the subfamily using three mitochondrial and four nuclear loci so as to investigate relationships among the basal hydrophiine genera and to determine the status of Toxicocalamus. We sequenced these loci for eight of the 12 described species within Toxicocalamus, representing the largest molecular data set for this genus. We found that a system of offshore island arcs in Melanesia was the centre of origin for terrestrial species of Hydrophiinae, and we recovered Toxicocalamus as monophyletic. Toxicocalamus demonstrates high genetic and morphological diversity, but some of the molecular diversity is not accompanied by diagnostic morphological change. We document at least five undescribed species that all key morphologically to Toxicocalamus loriae (Boulenger, 1898), rendering this species polyphyletic. Continued work on Toxicocalamus is needed to document the diversity of this genus, and is likely to result in the discovery of additional species. Our increased taxon sampling allowed us to better understand the evolution and biogeography of Hydrophiinae; however, several unsampled lineages remain, the later study of which may be used to test our biogeographic hypothesis.     

An ITS-based phylogenetic framework for the genus Vorticella: finding the molecular and morphological gaps in a taxonomically difficult group

Vorticella includes more than 100 currently recognized species and represents one of the most taxonomically challenging genera of ciliates. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Vorticella has been performed so far with only sequences coding for small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA); only a few of its species have been investigated using other genetic markers owing to a lack of similar sequences for comparison. Consequently, phylogenetic relationships within the genus remain unclear, and molecular discrimination between morphospecies is often difficult because most regions of the SSU rRNA gene are too highly conserved to be helpful. In this paper, we move molecular systematics for this group of ciliates to the infrageneric level by sequencing additional molecular markers—fast-evolving internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions—in a broad sample of 66 individual samples of 28 morphospecies of Vorticella collected from Asia, North America and Europe. Our phylogenies all featured two strongly supported, highly divergent, paraphyletic clades (I, II) comprising the morphologically defined genus Vorticella. Three major lineages made up clade I, with a relatively well-resolved branching order in each one. The marked divergence of clade II from clade I confirms that the former should be recognized as a separate taxonomic unit as indicated by SSU rRNA phylogenies. We made the first attempt to elucidate relationships between species in clade II using both morphological and multi-gene approaches, and our data supported a close relationship between some morphospecies of Vorticella and Opisthonecta, indicating that relationships between species in the clade are far more complex than would be expected from their morphology. Different patterns of helix III of ITS2 secondary structure were clearly specific to clades and subclades of Vorticella and, therefore, may prove useful for resolving phylogenetic relationships in other groups of ciliates.     

Small and overlooked: Phylogeny of the genus Trigonodactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae), with the first record of Trigonodactylus arabicus from Jordan

Geckos of the genus Trigonodactylus are widely distributed in the sand deserts of the Arabian Peninsula. Three species of this genus are currently recognized, with a fourth one, Stenodactylus pulcher, which placement within Trigonodactylus has been tentatively suggested, but not yet confirmed. We present a phylogenetic analysis of the genus Trigonodactylus with new specimens collected in central Saudi Arabia and southern Jordan. New genetic data has been generated from three mitochondrial markers to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of all species of the genus and to assess the putative generic assignment of S. pulcher. Our results confirm that S. pulcher indeed belongs within Trigonodactylus, branching as a sister lineage to all other species of the genus. The new samples cluster within Trigonodactylus arabicus, thus confirming the genetic homogeneity of the species across its large and seemingly inhospitable range. The new specimen collected in southern Jordan represents the first record for the country and a considerable range extension to the northwest from all previously reported localities. Our findings and discovery of a new species for Jordan highlight the need of more field surveys to be carried out in the underexplored parts of Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia, as these places still hold a potential for new discoveries and are crucial for understating the biogeography of the Arabian herpetofauna.     

A Mitochondrial Phylogeny and Biogeographical Scenario for Asiatic Water Shrews of the Genus Chimarrogale: Implications for Taxonomy and Low-Latitude Migration Routes

The six species and three subspecies in the genus Chimarrogale (Soricomorpha: Soricidae) are commonly referred to as Asiatic water shrews. The Chimarrogale are the most widely distributed group of Nectogaline shrews, extending throughout the Oriental region and Japan. Because of the limited numbers of specimens available for study, the phylogenetic relationships and biogeographical history of this genus have not been comprehensively discussed. We used mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences to estimate phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among four Chimarrogale species, including all three subspecies of Chimarrogale himalayica. We also conducted a species delimitation analysis and tested two alternative migration scenarios in Asia through species distribution modeling and a reconstruction of the ancestral distribution. Here, we present the first proposed hypothesis regarding the Asiatic water shrew phylogeny and reveal ten putative species within the four recognized species. Distinct phylogenetic statuses of Chimarrogale phaeura, Chimarrogale platycephala, and Chimarrogale styani were confirmed. Chimarrogale himalayica was strongly supported as paraphyletic. We suggest that three subspecies of Chimarrogale himalayica should be reconsidered as distinct species. However, these suggestions must be considered with caution because only a single locus of a mtDNA gene was used. Four additional putative species, possibly distributed in central southwestern China and Taiwan, are currently undescribed; therefore, comprehensive morphological analyses are warranted to test their taxonomic statuses. The estimated molecular divergence times indicated that rapid speciation occurred during the early Pliocene, and current distribution patterns may have been affected by global cooling during the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary. Reconstruction of the ancestral distribution and species distribution modeling for Asiatic water shrews revealed a low-latitude migration route over which ancestral Chimarrogale migrated from Europe via Central Asia to their current distribution. Our results demonstrated that Asiatic water shrews could have evolved throughout the low-latitude migration route from Europe to East and Southeast Asia.     

Cytochrome oxidase I sequences reveal possible cryptic diversity in the cosmopolitan symbiotic copepod Nesippus orientalis Heller, 1868 (Pandaridae: Siphonostomatoida) on elasmobranch hosts from the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa

Over the past decade, numerous molecular phylogenetic studies uncovered cryptic diversity within the Copepoda, yet very few investigations focused on symbiotic copepods. Here we report mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase I diversity in the cosmopolitan elasmobranch symbiont Nesippus orientalis off the KwaZulu-Natal coast of South Africa. Analysis of partial COI sequences of copepods sampled from a diversity of shark hosts, revealed the presence of two divergent clades. Diversity within the clades does not appear to be structured based on host species, host individual, geographic locality or time of sampling. However, divergence between the two clades seems to be related to host species. Phylogenetic analyses of representatives from the two clades, along with Nesippus spp., Caligus spp. and Lepeophtheirus spp. outgroups, further supports the distinction between the two clades. Future molecular phylogenetic investigations of widespread copepod symbionts most likely will reveal far greater levels of biodiversity than currently recognized.     

ORIGIN AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF AESCULUS L. (HIPPOCASTANACEAE): A MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETIC PERSPECTIVE

Sequences of chloroplast gene matK and internal transcribed spacers of nuclear ribosomal RNA genes were used for phylogenetic analyses of Aesculus, a genus currently distributed in eastern Asia, eastern and western North America, and southeastern Europe. Phylogenetic relationships inferred from these molecular data are highly correlated with the geographic distributions of species. The identified lineages closely correspond to the five sections previously recognized on the basis of morphology. Ancestral character-state reconstruction, a molecular clock, and fossil evidence were used to infer the origin and biogeographic history of the genus within a phylogenetic framework. Based on the molecular phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus, sequence divergence, and paleontological evidence, we infer that the genus originated during the transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary (~65 M.Y.B.P.) at a high latitude in eastern Asia and spread into North America and Europe as an element of the “boreotropical flora”; the current disjunct distribution of the genus resulted from geological and climatic changes during the Tertiary.     

A New Fishfly Species (Megaloptera: Corydalidae: Neohermes Banks) Discovered from North America by a Systematic Revision,with Phylogenetic and Biogeographic Implications

The taxonomy of Megaloptera from the Nearctic region is fairly well known and their faunal diversity has been largely surveyed, even in relatively remote regions. However, the evolutionary history of Nearctic Megaloptera is still poorly known with phylogenetic and biogeographic studies lacking. In this paper, we report a new fishfly species of the endemic North American genus Neohermes Banks, 1908, increasing the total number known of species to six. This new species (Neohermes inexpectatus sp. nov.) is currently known to occur only in California (USA) and is apparently confined to the Northern Coastal Range. The new species resembles the three Neohermes species from eastern North America based on the relatively small body size and the presence of female gonostyli 9. However, our phylogenetic analysis using adult morphological data recovered the new species as the sister species to the remaining Neohermes, which includes two species from western North America and three from eastern North America. According to the present interspecific phylogeny of Neohermes, with reconstructed ancestral areas, the initial divergence within the genus was found to take place in western North America, with a subsequent eastward dispersal. This likely lead to the modern distribution of Neohermes in eastern North America with the closure of the Mid-Continental Seaway, which separated western and eastern North America in the Mid-Late Cretaceous (100–80 MYA) and finally disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous (70 MYA). The uplift of the Cordilleran System probably accounted for the divergence between the eastern and two western Neohermes species.     

Chloroplast genomic diversity in Bulbophyllum section Macrocaulia (Orchidaceae,Epidendroideae, Malaxideae): Insights into species divergence and adaptive evolution

Bulbophyllum is the largest genus in Orchidaceae with a pantropical distribution. Due to highly significant diversifications, it is considered to be one of the most taxonomically and phylogenetically complex taxa. The diversification pattern and evolutionary adaptation of chloroplast genomes are poorly understood in this species-rich genus, and suitable molecular markers are necessary for species determination and phylogenetic analysis. A natural Asian section Macrocaulia was selected to estimate the interspecific divergence of chloroplast genomes in this study. Here, we sequenced the complete chloroplast genome of four Bulbophyllum species, including three species from section Macrocaulia. The four chloroplast genomes had a typical quadripartite structure with a genome size ranged from 156,182 to 158,524 bp. The chloroplast genomes included 113 unique genes encoding 79 proteins, 30 tRNAs and 4 rRNAs. Comparison of the four chloroplast genomes showed that the three species from section Macrocaulia had similar structure and gene contents, and shared a number of indels, which mainly contribute to its monophyly. In addition, interspecific divergence level was also great. Several exclusive indels and polymorphism SSR loci might be used for taxonomical identification and determining interspecific polymorphisms. A total of 20 intergenic regions and three coding genes of the most variable hotspot regions were proposed as candidate effective molecular markers for future phylogenetic relationships at different taxonomical levels and species divergence in Bulbophyllum. All of chloroplast genes in four Bulbophyllum species were under purifying selection, while 13 sites within six genes exhibited site-specific selection. A whole chloroplast genome phylogenetic analysis based on Maximum Likelihood, Bayesian and Parsimony methods all supported the monophyly of section Macrocaulia and the genus of Bulbophyllum. Our findings provide valuable molecular markers to use in accurately identifying species, clarifying taxonomy, and resolving the phylogeny and evolution of the genus Bulbophyllum. The molecular markers developed in this study will also contribute to further research of conservation of Bulbophyllum species.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Otidea</Emphasis> species from China,three new species with comments on some previously described species

The genus Otidea was recently monographed and studied phylogenetically, but knowledge of the diversity and distribution of Otidea species in China is fragmentary. In this study, collections from China were examined morphologically and included in phylogenetic analyses. Using LSU, TEF1-α, and RPB2 new species were placed within previously recognized clades in the genus. The results agree with both Genealogical Concordance Phylogenetic Species Recognition (GCPSR) and genetic divergence as previously reported. Three new species, Otidea hanseniae, Otidea korfii and Otidea purpureogrisea are recognized based on phylogenetic reconstruction using ITS, LSU, TEF1- α and RPB2. Comments on some incompletely known species are added. With the discovery of these three new species, the genus Otidea in China proves to be more diverse than previously recognized.     

Adaptive radiation in miniature: the minute salamanders of the Mexican highlands (Amphibia: Plethodontidae: Thorius)

The small size and apparent external morphological similarity of the minute salamanders of the genus Thorius have long hindered evolutionary studies of the group. We estimate gene and species trees within the genus using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA from nearly all named and many candidate species and find three main clades. We use this phylogenetic hypothesis to examine patterns of morphological evolution and species coexistence across central and southern Mexico and to test alternative hypotheses of lineage divergence with and without ecomorphological divergence. Sympatric species differ in body size more than expected after accounting for phylogenetic relationship, and morphological traits show no significant phylogenetic signal. Sympatric species tend to differ in a combination of body size, presence or absence of maxillary teeth, and relative limb or tail length, even when they are close relatives. Sister species of Thorius tend to occupy climatically similar environments, which suggests that divergence across climatic gradients does not drive species formation in the genus. Rather than being an example of cryptic species formation, Thorius more closely resembles an adaptive radiation, with ecomorphological divergence that is bounded by organism‐level constraints. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 622–643.     

A new sexually dimorphic mantidfly species of Allomantispa Liu et al., 2015 from China (Neuroptera: Mantispidae)

Allomantispa Liu et al., 2015 is the only extant genus of the mantidfly subfamily Drepanicinae from Eurasia, being endemic to the Oriental region. It currently consists of only two species from southeastern Tibet and northern Myanmar, respectively. Here we describe a new species of this rarely observed mantidfly genus, namely Allomantispa coniprocessa sp. nov. from Yunnan, China. Interestingly, the new species displays distinctive sexual dimorphic characters on the pronotum. The molecular identification reveals obvious genetic divergence between the allopatric individuals of the new species. Their morphological variations are illustrated and compared. In addition, some characters with taxonomic or phylogenetic significance present on the pronotum, the abdomen and the genitalia in Allomantispa are also discussed. Our finding updates the morphological and distributional information on Allomantispa and implies a more diverse fauna of this genus in the Oriental region than previously assumed.     

A phylogenetic analysis of the genus Paspalum (Poaceae) based on cpDNA and morphology

With about 350 species, Paspalum is one of the richest genera within the Poaceae. Its species inhabit ecologically diverse areas along the Americas and they are largely responsible for the biodiversity of grassland ecosystems in South America. Despite its size and relevance, no phylogeny of the genus as a whole is currently available and infrageneric relationships remain uncertain. Many Paspalum species consist of sexual-diploid and apomictic-polyploid cytotypes, and several have arisen through hybridization. In this paper we explore the phylogenetic structure of Paspalum using sequence data of four non-coding cpDNA fragments from a wide array of species which were combined with morphological data for a subset of diploid taxa. Our results confirmed the general monophyly of Paspalum if P. inaequivalve is excluded and the small genus Thrasyopsis is included. Only one of the four currently recognized subgenera was monophyletic but nested within the remainder of the genus. Some informal morphological groups were found to be polyphyletic. The placement of known allopolyploid groups is generally congruent with previously stated hypotheses although some species with shared genomic formulae formed paraphyletic arrangements. Other species formed a basal grade including mostly umbrophilous or hygrophilous species. It is hypothesized that the genus may have diversified as a consequence of the expansion of C4 grass-dominated grasslands in South America.     

Interspecific relationships of the genus<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Cicer</Emphasis> L. (Fabaceae) based on<Emphasis Type="Italic"> trn</Emphasis>T-F sequences

The trnT-F region in chloroplasts was sequenced to elucidate interspecific phylogenetic relationships in the genus Cicer. Twenty-five species representing four sections and two outgroups were analyzed. A phylogenetic analysis revealed three major clades in the genus Cicer. Inferred phylogenetic relationships support multiple origins of annual species in the genus Cicer. Low variation within the most perennial species in the sequence regions suggests they may have originated during a period of rapid diversification after the genus arose. High levels of sequence divergence, biogeographical patterns and morphological traits between African and Eurasian groups of species suggest that Cicer may have independently diverged on each continent. Phylogenetic analysis of sequence data did not support the monophyly of the currently recognized sections and indicated the need for a revision of the infrageneric classification.Communicated by C. Möllers     

Phylogeny, diversity, and species delimitation of the North American Round-Nosed Minnows (Teleostei: Dionda), as inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences

Accurate delimitation of species is a critical first step in protecting biodiversity. Detection of distinct species is especially important for groups of organisms that inhabit sensitive environments subject to recent degradation, such as creeks, springs, and rivers in arid or semi-desert regions. The genus Dionda currently includes six recognized and described species of minnows that live in clear springs and spring-fed creeks of Texas, New Mexico (USA), and northern Mexico, but the boundaries, delimitation, and characterization of species in this genus have not been examined rigorously. The habitats of some of the species in this genus are rapidly deteriorating, and many local populations of Dionda have been extirpated. Considering the increasing concerns over degradation of their habitat, and pending a more detailed morphological revision of the genus, we undertook a molecular survey based on four DNA regions to examine variation over the range of the genus, test species boundaries, and infer phylogenetic relationships within Dionda. Based on analyses of two mitochondrial (cytb and D-loop) and two nuclear (Rag1 and S7) DNA regions from specimens collected throughout the range of Dionda, we identified 12 distinct species in the genus. Formerly synonymized names are available for two of these species, and four other species remain undescribed. We also redefine the known range of six species. The limited distribution of several of the species, coupled with widespread habitat degradation, suggests that many of the species in this genus should be targets for conservation and recovery efforts.     

Systematics and conservation of the hook-billed kite including the island taxa from Cuba and Grenada

Taxonomic uncertainties within the genus Chondrohierax stem from the high degree of variation in bill size and plumage coloration throughout the geographic range of the single recognized species, hook-billed kite Chondrohierax uncinatus . These uncertainties impede conservation efforts as local populations have declined throughout much of its geographic range from the Neotropics in Central America to northern Argentina and Paraguay, including two island populations on Cuba and Grenada, and it is not known whether barriers to dispersal exist between any of these areas. Here, we present mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA; cytochrome B and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2) phylogenetic analyses of Chondrohierax , with particular emphasis on the two island taxa (from Cuba, Chondrohierax uncinatus wilsonii and from Grenada, Chondrohierax uncinatus mirus ). The mtDNA phylogenetic results suggest that hook-billed kites on both islands are unique; however, the Cuban kite has much greater divergence estimates (1.8–2.0% corrected sequence divergence) when compared with the mainland populations than does the Grenada hook-billed kite (0.1–0.3%). Our findings support species status for the Cuban form, as Chondrohierax wilsonii , and subspecific status for the Grenada form. For mainland taxa, we do not find support for the currently recognized subspecies Chondrohierax uncinatus aquilonis in western Mexico, but we do find evidence for a genetic subdivision between populations in Central and South America, a difference previously unsuspected. The results of this study help identify conservation priorities associated with these unique Neotropical raptors. This information is of immediate interest because the Cuban kite has not been reliably seen since 1992, and <50 hook-billed kites currently inhabit Grenada.     

On the Measurement of Ecological Novelty: Scale-Eating Pupfish Are Separated by 168 my from Other Scale-Eating Fishes

The colonization of new adaptive zones is widely recognized as one of the hallmarks of adaptive radiation. However, the adoption of novel resources during this process is rarely distinguished from phenotypic change because morphology is a common proxy for ecology. How can we quantify ecological novelty independent of phenotype? Our study is split into two parts: we first document a remarkable example of ecological novelty, scale-eating (lepidophagy), within a rapidly-evolving adaptive radiation of Cyprinodon pupfishes on San Salvador Island, Bahamas. This specialized predatory niche is known in several other fish groups, but is not found elsewhere among the 1,500 species of atherinomorphs. Second, we quantify this ecological novelty by measuring the time-calibrated phylogenetic distance in years to the most closely-related species with convergent ecology. We find that scale-eating pupfish are separated by 168 million years of evolution from the nearest scale-eating fish. We apply this approach to a variety of examples and highlight the frequent decoupling of ecological novelty from phenotypic divergence. We observe that novel ecology is not always tightly correlated with rates of phenotypic or species diversification, particularly within recent adaptive radiations, necessitating the use of additional measures of ecological novelty independent of phenotype.     

Rigorous approaches to species delimitation have significant implications for African crocodilian systematics and conservation

Accurate species delimitation is a central assumption of biology that, in groups such as the Crocodylia, is often hindered by highly conserved morphology and frequent introgression. In Africa, crocodilian systematics has been hampered by complex regional biogeography and confounded taxonomic history. We used rigorous molecular and morphological species delimitation methods to test the hypothesis that the slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus) is composed of multiple species corresponding to the Congolian and Guinean biogeographic zones. Speciation probability was assessed by using 11 mitochondrial and nuclear genes, and cranial morphology for over 100 specimens, representing the full geographical extent of the species distribution. Molecular Bayesian and phylogenetic species delimitation showed unanimous support for two Mecistops species isolated to the Upper Guinean and Congo (including Lower Guinean) biomes that were supported by 13 cranial characters capable of unambiguously diagnosing each species. Fossil-calibrated phylogenetic reconstruction estimated that the species split ± 6.5–7.5 Ma, which is congruent with intraspecies divergence within the sympatric crocodile genus Osteolaemus and the formation of the Cameroon Volcanic Line. Our results underscore the necessity of comprehensive phylogeographic analyses within currently recognized taxa to detect cryptic species within the Crocodylia. We recommend that the community of crocodilian researchers reconsider the conceptualization of crocodilian species especially in the light of the conservation ramifications for this economically and ecologically important group.     

Diversity of North American map and sawback turtles (Testudines: Emydidae: Graptemys)

Map turtles of the genus Graptemys are native to North America, where a high degree of drainage endemism is believed to have shaped current diversity. With 14 species and one additional subspecies, Graptemys represents the most diverse genus in the family Emydidae. While some Graptemys species are characterized by pronounced morphological differences, previous phylogenetic analyses have failed yet to confirm significant levels of genetic divergence for many taxa. As a consequence, it has been debated whether Graptemys is taxonomically inflated or whether the low genetic divergence observed reflects recent radiations or ancient hybridization. In this study, we analysed three mtDNA blocks (3228 bp) as well as 12 nuclear loci (7844 bp) of 89 specimens covering all species and subspecies of Graptemys. Our analyses of the concatenated mtDNA sequences reveal that the widespread G. geographica constitutes the sister taxon of all other Graptemys species. These correspond to two clades, one comprised of all broad‐headed Graptemys species and another clade containing the narrow‐headed species. Most species of the broad‐headed clade are reciprocally monophyletic, except for G. gibbonsi and G. pearlensis, which are not differentiated. By contrast, in the narrow‐headed clade, many currently recognized species are not monophyletic and divergence is significantly less pronounced. Haplotype networks of phased nuclear loci show low genetic divergence among taxa and many shared haplotypes. Principal component analyses using coded phased nuclear DNA sequences revealed eight distinct clusters within Graptemys that partially conflict with the terminal mtDNA clades. This might be explained by male‐mediated gene flow across drainage basins and female philopatry within drainage basins. Our results support that Graptemys is taxonomically oversplit and needs to be revised.     

Ultraconserved elements put the final nail in the coffin of traditional use of the genus Meliphaga (Aves: Meliphagidae)

Molecular systematics is bringing taxonomy into the 21st Century by updating our nomenclature to reflect phylogenetic relationships of taxa. This transformation is evidenced by massive changes in avian taxonomy, ranging from ordinal to subspecies changes. In this study, we employ target capture of ultraconserved elements to resolve genus‐level systematics of a problematic group of honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae). With near complete species‐level taxon sampling of the Australo‐Papuan species within the traditionally recognized Meliphaga and Oreornis, we investigate generic limits using a genomic dataset. Likelihood and species tree methods confirm two clades within this group and found the New Guinea endemic Oreornis chrysogenys embedded within one of these clades. Our study supports earlier recommendations that Meliphaga Lewin, 1808 should be restricted to three species, M. aruensis, M. lewinii and M. notata. We make a case for recognizing three genera in the remaining species, Oreornis van Oort, 1910, Microptilotis Mathews, 1912 and Territornis Mathews, 1924.     

RAD sequencing resolved phylogenetic relationships in European shrub willows (Salix L. subg. Chamaetia and subg. Vetrix) and revealed multiple evolution of dwarf shrubs

The large and diverse genus Salix L. is of particular interest for decades of biological research. However, despite the morphological plasticity, the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships was so far hampered by the lack of informative molecular markers. Infrageneric classification based on morphology separates dwarf shrubs (subg. Chamaetia) and taller shrubs (subg. Vetrix), while previous phylogenetic studies placed species of these two subgenera just in one largely unresolved clade. Here we want to test the utility of genomic RAD sequencing markers for resolving relationships at different levels of divergence in Salix. Based on a sampling of 15 European species representing 13 sections of the two subgenera, we used five different RAD sequencing datasets generated by Ipyrad to conduct phylogenetic analyses. Additionally we reconstructed the evolution of growth form and analyzed the genetic composition of the whole clade. The results showed fully resolved trees in both ML and BI analysis with high statistical support. The two subgenera Chamaetia and Vetrix were recognized as nonmonophyletic, which suggests that they should be merged. Within the Vetrix/Chamaetia clade, a division into three major subclades could be observed. All species were confirmed to be monophyletic. Based on our data, arctic‐alpine dwarf shrubs evolved four times independently. The structure analysis showed five mainly uniform genetic clusters which are congruent in sister relationships observed in the phylogenies. Our study confirmed RAD sequencing as a useful genomic tool for the reconstruction of relationships on different taxonomic levels in the genus Salix.