Why conserve biodiversity? A multi-national exploration of stakeholders’ views on the arguments for biodiversity conservation

Given the concern about biodiversity loss, there are a number of arguments used for biodiversity conservation ranging from those emphasising the intrinsic value of biodiversity to those on the direct use value of ecosystems. Yet arguing the case for biodiversity conservation effectively requires an understanding of why people value biodiversity. We used Q methodology to explore and understand how different conservation practitioners (social and natural science researchers, environmental non-Governmental organisations and decision-makers) in nine European countries argue for conservation. We found that there was a plurality of views about biodiversity and its conservation. A moral argument and some arguments around the intrinsic and ecological value of biodiversity were held by all stakeholder groups. They also shared the view that species valuation does not justify the destruction of nature. However, there were also some differences within and between the groups, which primarily reflected the espousal of either ecocentric or anthropocentric viewpoints. Our findings suggest that moral arguments and those around biodiversity’s intrinsic and ecological value could potentially serve as a starting point for building consensus among conservation practitioners.     

Views on the wisdom of using antioxidant vitamin supplements

In the Forum that follows, four authorities in nutrition and vitaminology present their divergent views on the use of antioxidant vitamin supplements. In this introduction, the basic dilemma between setting RDAs that insure an absence of deficiency symptoms and those that insure optimal health is discussed, as well as other factors that must be considered to reach a consensus on this controversial topic.     

石羊河流域生态系统服务权衡与协同关系研究

生态系统服务权衡与协同研究是国际生态学、地理学等学科研究的热点。以石羊河流域为研究区,借助In VEST模型,对流域2005、2010和2015年的水源涵养、土壤保持、水质净化、碳储存和生物多样性五项服务进行精准测度,分析服务的时空格局及演变特征,并利用相关系数法逐像元定量计算5种服务之间的权衡与协同关系,从不同尺度分析权衡与协同关系的空间格局特征。结果表明:(1)各项服务具有空间异质性:水源涵养、土壤保持、碳储存、生物多样性呈"西南高-东北低"的空间格局,且水质净化、碳储存服务的高值区沿河流分布。(2) 10年期间,水源涵养、水质净化、碳储存、生物多样性服务呈现"整体增加-局部减少"的变化趋势,而土壤保持呈"整体减少-局部增加"的变化特征。(3)多种服务之间权衡与协同关系具有区域依赖特征:水源涵养与土壤保持、水源涵养与水质净化、水质净化与碳储存、水质净化与生物多样性、土壤保持与碳储存、土壤保持与生物多样性以权衡关系为主;水源涵养与碳储存、水源涵养与生物多样性、土壤保持与水质净化、碳储存与生物多样性以协同关系为主。定量可视化评估生态系统服务及权衡关系,为制定区域发展与生态保护双赢政策提供依据,同时也为其他流域的相关研究提供可靠参考。     

Hen harriers and red grouse: moving towards consensus?

1.  The presence of predators may lead to conflict between different stakeholders. Finding ways to resolve such conflicts is a challenge to all involved.
2.  Within the UK a long and, at times, acrimonious conflict has developed around the conservation of hen harriers Circus cyaneus on moorland managed for red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus . This paper follows our original forum article and the replies from colleagues in the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT).
3.  Whilst differences of opinion remain, there are encouraging signs that both sides are striving for consensus. There is broad agreement that evidence is required on three fronts to address: (1) the ecological, economic and social consequences of alternative forms of land management in the uplands; (2) the efficacy of diversionary feeding of hen harriers; and (3) the utility of a brood management scheme to improve harrier conservation status and reduce the extent of the conflict.
4.   Synthesis and applications : The conflict between hen harrier conservation and red grouse management has existed for decades with little sign of progress. For the first time, stakeholders, researchers and policy advisors are engaged in effective dialogue and are striving for solutions. There are encouraging signs that all sides are now willing to listen to alternative viewpoints and appear prepared to seriously consider compromises. It is to be hoped that a solution to the harrier–grouse conflict can be found as this will have considerable positive ramifications for management of heather moorlands in the UK and wider implications for the conservation of predators around the world.     

Striking a new balance between agricultural production and biodiversity

Agricultural policy in Europe is changing from supporting production to encouraging environmental benefits in the context of sustainable rural development. As a result, there is a window of opportunity to reconsider the balance between agricultural production and biodiversity management on British farmland, to seek to redress the problems for biodiversity that accrued during intensification without reducing the capacity to meet the coming challenges of global change and population increase. These challenges are discussed in the context of longer term historical change, and in terms of how readily they can be overcome. Current policies can deliver conservation targets that are within the control of individual land managers, and are likely to increase landscape heterogeneity significantly. However, it will be more dif. cult to plan landscapes to deliver agricultural production, ecosystem services and conserve biodiversity in the face of nutrient deposition and climate change. There can be no theoretical “optimum” balance between production and biodiversity, as environmental goals depend greatly upon decisions about scales (from local to global, immediate to long) and the viewpoints of stakeholders. Indeed, the social challenge of delivering sustainable agricultural landscapes is far greater than the scientific one of researching what they might be like.     

Should conservation of biodiversity involve private land? A Q methodological study in Poland to assess stakeholders’ attitude

Biodiversity conservation is gradually shifting its dependency on public protected areas to take a more holistic ecosystem and landscape approach that includes private lands in addition to public lands. However, effective practice of biodiversity conservation on private land also depends on landowners’ attitude and their willingness to participate and cooperate. This study focuses on Poland where conservation on private land is a relatively new concept but it is slowly gaining recognition, especially after its accession into the European Union. It investigates and classifies the diverse attitudes among stakeholder groups in Poland toward biodiversity conservation on private land that are part of protected areas. Four primary stakeholder groups were considered: conservation and park authorities, local administrative officials, local conservation based NGOs and private landowners. The study was conducted across three sites that represented three different forms of protected areas in Poland: a national park, a landscape park and a Natura 2000 site. Q methodology, a research method from psychology and other social sciences, was used to classify human subjectivity in stakeholders’ attitude in a more systematic manner. The analysis yielded three predominant factors which highlighted the diversity in attitudes among the stakeholder groups based on their knowledge, concerns and experience in the subject. Additionally, it underlined the common recognition among all stakeholder groups for better policy support, stronger collaboration among stakeholder and more financial or compensatory support for landowners to make private land conservation more feasible. Understanding the differences in attitudes will help bridge the gap between conservation priority and conservation opportunity—a current challenge in the field of biodiversity conservation.     

The Importance of Stakeholder Engagement in Invasive Species Management: A Cross-jurisdictional Perspective in Ireland

The management of invasive non-native species is a frequent cause of conflict in the field of biodiversity conservation because perceptions of their costs and benefits differ among stakeholder groups. A lack of cohesion between scientific researchers, the commercial sector and policy makers lies at the root of a widespread failure to develop and implement sustainable management practices for invasive species. The crisis of this situation is intensified by drivers stemming from international conventions and directives to address invasive species issues. There are further direct conflicts between legislative instruments promoting biodiversity conservation on the one hand while liberalizing trade at the national, European and global level on the other. The island of Ireland provides graphic illustration of the importance of cross-jurisdictional approaches to biological invasions. Using primarily Irish examples in this review, we emphasize the importance of approaching risk assessment, risk reduction and control or eradication policies from a cost-efficient, highly flexible perspective, incorporating linkages between environmental, economic and social objectives. The need for consolidated policies between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland is particularly acute, though few model cross-border mechanisms for such consolidation are available. The importance of engaging affected stakeholders through positive interactions is discussed with regard to reducing the currently fragmented nature of invasive species management between the two jurisdictions.     

生物多样性保护廊道构建方法研究进展

生物多样性保护廊道对遏制生态系统退化及生物多样性丧失,改善生态系统服务功能,消除生境破碎化对生物多样性的影响,恢复珍稀濒危物种的种群数量,维护自然生态系统平衡稳定具有极为重要的作用。在近20年(1997—2017)国内外生物多样性保护廊道的相关研究分析的基础上,对廊道的概念、构建理论及方法应用进行了系统总结与探讨,分析了廊道构建理论的发展过程及适用性,分类总结了现有的廊道构建方法和17种廊道构建模型工具。研究分析表明,廊道作为一种新的生物多样性保护模式,已成为目前国际生态领域研究的热点之一,随着对物种景观运动过程认识的加深,廊道构建理论逐渐趋于成熟,与之匹配的廊道构建方法及模型工具进展迅速。借助遥感与地理信息技术,大范围,高精度的获取廊道模拟数据,并集成综合模型实现目标物种廊道的构建、保护和管理是今后生物多样性保护廊道构建研究的发展方向。最后,对当前该领域的研究现状和不足展开讨论并展望了未来发展,为我国生物多样性保护廊道的应用与实践及国家生态廊道体系的建设完善提供借鉴与参考。     

Biodiversity informatics in Eastern Africa: Status,drivers and barriers

This article uses content analysis to review policies and relevant documents that promote or hinder the generation and use of biodiversity data in Eastern Africa. The review found that all countries in the region are committed to international and regional conventions that emphasize the protection and conservation of biodiversity. Some of the other drivers for biodiversity informatics include countries’ national biodiversity related policies although there are few, which highlight the need for biodiversity data management systems. However, the existing policies are deficient in terms of policies for biodiversity data management. Suggestions to ensure the success of biodiversity informatics in East Africa include: (i) Avoiding overlaps but promoting complementarities within and/or between different institutions and stakeholders involved in biodiversity conservation; (ii) Putting in place clear, complete and simple policy documents pertaining to biodiversity data management.     

Urban Grassland Restoration: A Neglected Opportunity for Biodiversity Conservation

Urbanization is one of the most severe threats to biodiversity, so why should not we use green space in cities to counteract the biodiversity loss as much as possible? Urban grasslands provide a large number of social, financial, recreational, and environmental ecosystem services but can also support high biodiversity. In this article, I describe the importance of urban grasslands for (local) biodiversity and recommend strengthening restoration ecological research and efforts to optimize these novel ecosystems for conservation purposes. The management intensity of a high proportion of urban grasslands decreased over the last decades. However, species richness of these grasslands is still low, although there is now a great potential for higher plant, but also animal diversity. While communal authorities are interested in cost‐efficient but at the same time biodiversity‐friendly management of urban grasslands, a well‐founded scientific basis for the restoration of urban grassland is still missing. I argue that besides all challenges associated with the restoration of urban habitats we should urgently proceed in the development of appropriate and effective restoration approaches and communicate knowledge gained to urban planners and stakeholders. Widening the scope of restoration ecological research to novel ecosystems such as urban grasslands is one of the most important recent challenges for biodiversity restoration and it gives urban habitats the significance they deserve .     

Biodiversity hotspots are not congruent with conservation areas in the Gulf of California

As marine systems are threatened by increasing human impacts, mechanisms to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services are needed. Protecting areas of conservation importance may serve as a proxy for maintaining these functions, while also facilitating efficient use and management of limited resources. Biodiversity hotspots have been used as surrogates for spatial conservation importance; however, as many protected areas have been established opportunistically and under differing criteria, it is unclear how well they actually protect hotspots. We evaluated how well the current protected area network and priority areas selected through previous systematic conservation planning exercises preserve biodiversity hotspots in the Gulf of California, Mexico. We also determined spatial congruence between biodiversity hotspots based on different criteria, which may determine their ability to be used as surrogates for each other. We focus on the Gulf of California because it is a megadiverse system where limited information regarding species diversity and distribution has constrained development of strategies for conservation and management. We developed a species occurrence database and identified biodiversity hotspots using four different criteria: species richness, rarity, endemism, and threatened species. We interpolated species occurrence, while accounting for heterogeneous sampling efforts. We then assessed overlap of hotspots with existing protected areas and priority areas, and between hotspots derived by distinct criteria. We gathered 286,533 occurrence records belonging to 12,105 unique species, including 6388 species identified as rare, 642 as endemic, and 386 as threatened. We found that biodiversity hotspots showed little spatial overlap with areas currently under protection and previously identified priority areas. Our results highlight the importance of distinct spatial areas of biodiversity and suggest that different ecological mechanisms sustain different aspects of diversity and multiple criteria should be used when defining conservation areas.     

Linking Trees on Farms with Biodiversity Conservation in Subsistence Farming Systems in Nepal

The Kingdom of Nepal extends 800 km east to west along the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Because of its biogeographical position, Nepal contains biological elements of both the Indo-Malayan and Palaearctic realms. Beside the trees in forest ecosystems, a large number of tree species are maintained on farms as part of subsistence farming systems. The role of these trees in ensuring the sustainability of agricultural production and the importance of traditional farming systems for the conservation of crop diversity have been well documented. However, the status of farm trees and their role in biodiversity conservation are poorly documented. This paper presents a case study of two villages in the western middle hills of Nepal. It highlights the role of traditional agroforestry practices for the conservation of tree diversity and argues that farms can be considered biodiversity reservoirs. Farm trees help to reduce pressure on community and government forests and create a favorable environment for many plant and animal species. Farm trees also provide social functions in that households with many farm trees no longer exercise their communal rights to extract grass products from community forests, which in turn benefits poor and disadvantaged households. The paper discusses possibilities to improve the role of farm trees in biodiversity conservation. It argues for the development of mechanisms such as tax exemptions and conservation credits that provide benefits to rural communities as compensation for their local and global environmental services including biodiversity conservation.     

Speciation reversal and biodiversity dynamics with hybridization in changing environments

A considerable fraction of the world's biodiversity is of recent evolutionary origin and has evolved as a by-product of, and is maintained by, divergent adaptation in heterogeneous environments. Conservationists have paid attention to genetic homogenization caused by human-induced translocations (e.g. biological invasions and stocking), and to the importance of environmental heterogeneity for the ecological coexistence of species. However, far less attention has been paid to the consequences of loss of environmental heterogeneity to the genetic coexistence of sympatric species. Our review of empirical observations and our theoretical considerations on the causes and consequences of interspecific hybridization suggest that a loss of environmental heterogeneity causes a loss of biodiversity through increased genetic admixture, effectively reversing speciation. Loss of heterogeneity relaxes divergent selection and removes ecological barriers to gene flow between divergently adapted species, promoting interspecific introgressive hybridization. Since heterogeneity of natural environments is rapidly deteriorating in most biomes, the evolutionary ecology of speciation reversal ought to be fully integrated into conservation biology.     

BioBanking: an environmental scientist’s view of the role of biodiversity banking offsets in conservation

Offsets, first formalised in the United States of America in the 1970s for wetland mitigation, are now widely used globally with the aim to mitigate loss of biodiversity due to development. Embracing biodiversity offsets is one method of governments to meet their commitments under the Millennium Development Goals and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Resource extraction companies see them as a method of gaining access to land, while the community may perceive them as a way of enhancing environmental outcomes. In New South Wales, Australia, BioBanking legislation was introduced in late 2006 with the aim of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity associated with development, particularly expanding urban and coastal development. The strengths of the legislation are that it aims to enhance threatened species conservation, and raise the profile of conservation of threatened species and habitats. Weaknesses include (1) the narrowness of the definition of biodiversity; (2) the concepts are based on a flawed logic and immature, imprecise and complex science which results in difficulties in determining biodiversity values; (3) likely problems with management and compliance; and (4) an overall lack of resources for implementation and long-term monitoring. It is concluded that the legislation is a concerted effort to deal with biodiversity loss, however, stakeholders have concerns with the process, and it is unworkable with the complexity of such ecosystems (compared for example to carbon credit trading), and underdeveloped disciplines such as restoration biology and ecology. Despite these criticisms, there is a need for all stakeholders to work to improve the outcomes.     

集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的系统保护规划

生物多样性和生态系统服务的保护与可持续管理是当今世界面临的重大挑战之一,但如何判识与优化集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护对象的保护优先区网络,相关研究还很有限。针对“三江并流”区,选取珍稀濒危与特有动植物物种和自然植被类型作为生物多样性保护对象,以调节服务(碳存储、固碳和土壤保持)、文化服务(自然游憩)和供给服务(水源供给)为生态系统服务保护对象。应用系统保护规划方法,首先判识出单一生物多样性和生态系统服务保护优先区;然后,分析这些保护优先区间的相关关系,并选择与生物多样性正相关的生态系统服务类型,判识集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的保护优先区;最后,评估了集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区在六类已建保护地中的保护状况。结果表明：(1)“三江并流”区多情景规划得到的生物多样性与生态系统服务保护优先区之间均呈正相关关系;(2)与分别针对生态系统服务和生物多样性的规划情景相比,集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区能够同时对两类保护对象提供最高的保护覆盖率;(3)集成生态系统服务和生物多样性保护优先区占研究区总面积的48.9%,其已建保护地覆盖率为32.5%,说明现有保护地体系仍存在保护...     

保护区与社区关系协调:方法和实践经验

保护区的持续存在和发展必须得到当地居民的支持和认可。从理论上讲,保护区和社区之间的关系在区域尺度上表现为保护成本和收益分配不均衡,在保护区内表现为保护和发展之间的冲突。在实践上,保护区的管理模式已经从以前传统的强制性保护转向比较公开、民主的保护模式,比较典型的方法包括生物圈保护区、综合保护和发展项目(ICDPs)以及基于社区的自然资源管理(CBNRM)。通过多年的实践,上述方法取得了许多经验和教训．目前已在三个方面达成共识：社区和社区行为在理论和实践中不一致、社区居民与其他利益群体之间的协调机制以及项目实施所必需的支持／保障机制。本文对国内外协调保护区与社区关系的方法和实践经验等进行分析和总结,以期为改善我国自然保护区的管理,实现可持续发展提供借鉴。     

基于焦点物种的北京市生物保护安全格局规划

快速城市化进程中,城市及周边地区生物栖息地的丧失和破碎化对生物多样性保护构成严重威胁。如何在景观尺度上判别对于生物保护具有重要意义的栖息地及其空间格局成为了重要问题。选取快速城市化的典型地区——北京市作为研究对象,将焦点物种和景观安全格局方法相结合,对北京市生物保护安全格局进行判别和规划。根据焦点物种的定义和选取标准,将在栖息地类型、生物学特征等各方面具有代表性的大白鹭(Casmerodius albus)、绿头鸭(Anas platyrhynchos)、环颈雉(Phasianus colchicus)选作北京市的焦点物种,应用最小阻力模型和GIS空间分析技术,对焦点物种的栖息地适宜性进行分析,并建立物种运动的等阻力面,根据阻力面的空间特征对北京市生物保护安全格局进行规划。结果显示:规划后的安全格局的斑块数量、分离度、邻近距离显著下降,平均斑块面积和最大斑块指数显著上升;该格局用约60%的土地,保护了北京市主要生境类型及关键性空间格局,可有效缓解栖息地丧失和破碎化的问题,从而达到保护整体生物多样性的目的。这一研究方法和成果可为北京市生物多样性保护和城乡生态建设提供决策依据,也对同类研究具有借鉴价值。     

Considerable qualitative variability in local-level biodiversity surveys in Finland: A challenge for biodiversity offsetting

High-quality biodiversity monitoring is crucial in the era of rapid global biodiversity loss and for the evaluation of conservation outcomes at different spatial scales. Biodiversity offsets are conservation actions that aim to an outcome of no net loss of biodiversity by compensating for the negative impacts from development projects. Successful use of offsets requires that the biodiversity gains and losses between offset and development areas are adequately and comparably measured. Numerous local-level biodiversity surveys are conducted to estimate the biodiversity values of potential development areas in Finland every year. These surveys are done for local planning purposes, and their results are almost never published. We studied Finnish biodiversity surveys to assess their adequacy with regards to biodiversity offsetting. Our data included all biodiversity surveys (n = 206) documented in the region of Southwest Finland during the time period of 1997–2014. We analysed the surveys based on Finnish nature legislation and biodiversity related criteria gathered from other offset and conservation programs. We found the surveys to be inadequate in their assessment of nature values and spatial considerations for offset purposes. We used cluster analysis to study the differences between surveys based on the inventoried nature values and found surveys were clustered into 3 different groups. The characteristics of surveys also varied between individual surveyors. Our results show that the current execution of biodiversity surveys is not compatible enough with the quality of surveys needed for biodiversity offsets. Surveys must be standardized to ensure their comparability and sufficient measurement of biodiversity with ecologically and geographically important features.     

The malarial host-targeting signal is conserved in the Irish potato famine pathogen

Animal and plant eukaryotic pathogens, such as the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the potato late blight agent Phytophthora infestans, are widely divergent eukaryotic microbes. Yet they both produce secretory virulence and pathogenic proteins that alter host cell functions. In P. falciparum, export of parasite proteins to the host erythrocyte is mediated by leader sequences shown to contain a host-targeting (HT) motif centered on an RxLx (E, D, or Q) core: this motif appears to signify a major pathogenic export pathway with hundreds of putative effectors. Here we show that a secretory protein of P. infestans, which is perceived by plant disease resistance proteins and induces hypersensitive plant cell death, contains a leader sequence that is equivalent to the Plasmodium HT-leader in its ability to export fusion of green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the P. falciparum parasite to the host erythrocyte. This export is dependent on an RxLR sequence conserved in P. infestans leaders, as well as in leaders of all ten secretory oomycete proteins shown to function inside plant cells. The RxLR motif is also detected in hundreds of secretory proteins of P. infestans, Phytophthora sojae, and Phytophthora ramorum and has high value in predicting host-targeted leaders. A consensus motif further reveals E/D residues enriched within approximately 25 amino acids downstream of the RxLR, which are also needed for export. Together the data suggest that in these plant pathogenic oomycetes, a consensus HT motif may reside in an extended sequence of approximately 25-30 amino acids, rather than in a short linear sequence. Evidence is presented that although the consensus is much shorter in P. falciparum, information sufficient for vacuolar export is contained in a region of approximately 30 amino acids, which includes sequences flanking the HT core. Finally, positional conservation between Phytophthora RxLR and P. falciparum RxLx (E, D, Q) is consistent with the idea that the context of their presentation is constrained. These studies provide the first evidence to our knowledge that eukaryotic microbes share equivalent pathogenic HT signals and thus conserved mechanisms to access host cells across plant and animal kingdoms that may present unique targets for prophylaxis across divergent pathogens.     

中国生态安全屏障体系建设现状、主要问题及对策建议

中国生态安全屏障体系建设是生态文明建设的重要组成部分，在维护国家安全方面具有重大战略意义。研究从生态安全屏障功能特点、建设、监测与评估及规划和实施等方面阐述了我国生态安全屏障体系建设现状；分析了在生态安全屏障建设中，自然生态系统的破坏、社会-生态系统脆弱性、生物多样性保护受到威胁、科技体系支撑不足、公众参与意识薄弱和保护与发展的矛盾等方面面临的主要问题和挑战；进而提出了基于生态安全格局的整体布局方略，指出了开展社会-生态脆弱性调查和评估的重要性，强调了国家公园在生态安全屏障体系建设的引领示范作用。最终，希望通过围绕生态文明建设，引导社会公众深度参与，构建“生态-生产-生活”统筹协调机制，以求积极探索生态安全屏障体系建设高质量、高速和可持续发展道路，迈向新时代生态安全屏障建设新征程。