Quantifying resilience of multiple ecosystem services and biodiversity in a temperate forest landscape

Resilience is increasingly being considered as a new paradigm of forest management among scientists, practitioners, and policymakers. However, metrics of resilience to environmental change are lacking. Faced with novel disturbances, forests may be able to sustain existing ecosystem services and biodiversity by exhibiting resilience, or alternatively these attributes may undergo either a linear or nonlinear decline. Here we provide a novel quantitative approach for assessing forest resilience that focuses on three components of resilience, namely resistance, recovery, and net change, using a spatially explicit model of forest dynamics. Under the pulse set scenarios, we explored the resilience of nine ecosystem services and four biodiversity measures following a one‐off disturbance applied to an increasing percentage of forest area. Under the pulse + press set scenarios, the six disturbance intensities explored during the pulse set were followed by a continuous disturbance. We detected thresholds in net change under pulse + press scenarios for the majority of the ecosystem services and biodiversity measures, which started to decline sharply when disturbance affected >40% of the landscape. Thresholds in net change were not observed under the pulse scenarios, with the exception of timber volume and ground flora species richness. Thresholds were most pronounced for aboveground biomass, timber volume with respect to the ecosystem services, and ectomycorrhizal fungi and ground flora species richness with respect to the biodiversity measures. Synthesis and applications. The approach presented here illustrates how the multidimensionality of stability research in ecology can be addressed and how forest resilience can be estimated in practice. Managers should adopt specific management actions to support each of the three components of resilience separately, as these may respond differently to disturbance. In addition, management interventions aiming to deliver resilience should incorporate an assessment of both pulse and press disturbances to ensure detection of threshold responses to disturbance, so that appropriate management interventions can be identified.     

Impacts of forest fragmentation on species composition and forest structure in the temperate landscape of southern Chile

Aim Few studies have explicitly examined the influence of spatial attributes of forest fragments when examining the impacts of fragmentation on woody species. The aim of this study was to assess the diverse impacts of fragmentation on forest habitats by integrating landscape‐level and species‐level approaches. Location The investigation was undertaken in temperate rain forests located in southern Chile. This ecosystem is characterized by high endemism and by intensive recent changes in land use. Method Measures of diversity, richness, species composition, forest structure and anthropogenic disturbances were related to spatial attributes of the landscape (size, shape, connectivity, isolation and interior forest area) of forest fragments using generalized linear models. A total of 63 sampling plots distributed in 51 forest fragments with different spatial attributes were sampled. Results Patch size was the most important attribute influencing different measures of species composition, stand structure and anthropogenic disturbances. The abundance of tree and shrub species associated with interior and edge habitats was significantly related to variation in patch size. Basal area, a measure of forest structure, significantly declined with decreasing patch size, suggesting that fragmentation is affecting successional processes in the remaining forests. Small patches also displayed a greater number of stumps, animal trails and cow pats, and lower values of canopy cover as a result of selective logging and livestock grazing in relatively accessible fragments. However, tree richness and β‐diversity of tree species were not significantly related to fragmentation. Main conclusions This study demonstrates that progressive fragmentation by logging and clearance is associated with dramatic changes in the structure and composition of the temperate forests in southern Chile. If this fragmentation process continues, the ability of the remnant forests to maintain their original biodiversity and ecological processes will be significantly reduced.     

Functional landscape heterogeneity and animal biodiversity in agricultural landscapes

Biodiversity in agricultural landscapes can be increased with conversion of some production lands into 'more-natural'- unmanaged or extensively managed - lands. However, it remains unknown to what extent biodiversity can be enhanced by altering landscape pattern without reducing agricultural production. We propose a framework for this problem, considering separately compositional heterogeneity (the number and proportions of different cover types) and configurational heterogeneity (the spatial arrangement of cover types). Cover type classification and mapping is based on species requirements, such as feeding and nesting, resulting in measures of 'functional landscape heterogeneity'. We then identify three important questions: does biodiversity increase with (1) increasing heterogeneity of the more-natural areas, (2) increasing compositional heterogeneity of production cover types and (3) increasing configurational heterogeneity of production cover types? We discuss approaches for addressing these questions. Such studies should have high priority because biodiversity protection globally depends increasingly on maintaining biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes.     

Stand height and cover type complement forest age structure as a biodiversity indicator in boreal and northern temperate forest management

Forest age structure is one of the main indicators of biodiversity in temperate and boreal forests worldwide. This indicator was mainly chosen for the conservation of a subset of rare or sensitive species related to the oldest age classes, not to capture variability across the entire biodiversity spectrum, but is often considered as such. In this study, we analysed alpha and beta diversity in temporary plots of western Quebec, Canada, to consider biodiversity indicators complementary to existing forest age structure targets. Our analysis revealed that considered individually, stand characteristics such as cover type and height are better predictors of changes in site-level contribution to tree beta diversity than age. We also show that plots belonging to different age classes can be similar in terms of tree alpha diversity. Height class was found to have a more significant impact on tree alpha diversity than expected: height was more important than age in coniferous forests, and in deciduous and mixedwood stands it frequently complemented age in explaining the observed diversity patterns. Our results suggest that forest age structure target levels should not be used as the sole indicator of ecosystem sustainability, and that some mature secondary stands can provide significant contributions to biodiversity. We propose that more efficient trade-offs between forest exploitation, ecosystem functioning and environmental conservation can be attained if: (i) forest age structure targets are complemented by cover type and stand height; or (ii) complementary biodiversity indicators of ecosystem sustainability are implemented.     

农业景观异质性对生物多样性与生态系统服务的影响研究进展

农业景观是人类生活所需资料的最主要来源地,农业景观及其提供的生物多样性和生态系统服务是影响人类福祉的最主要因素之一。系统梳理了景观异质性变化对生物多样性和生态系统服务影响的相关研究,总结指出:(1)农业景观格局变化会强烈的影响着区域生物多样性和生态系统服务,但总体上更关注了空间异质性,对于时间和功能异质性的研究仍需加强;(2)尺度效应、大尺度上景观背景的差异、种间差异、营养级联效应等会对景观异质性和生物多样性、生态系统服务间的关系产生显著的、综合的、交互的影响效应。未来区域农业景观中如何通过景观构建和管理措施的施行来确保生物多样性与生态系统服务供给的持续稳定仍需进一步加强以下内容的研究:景观异质性变化在时间上和功能上的影响效应及其阈值的探讨;跨尺度、多因素、多物种类群与多生态系统服务的综合及其交互作用;不同生物类群和不同生态系统服务间的权衡;景观异质性提高与有效生境面积下降及其引起的生物随机丧失间的权衡等问题。     

A preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in Afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals

Burgess, N., de Klerk, H., Fjeldsá, J., Crowe, T. & Rahbek, R. 2000. A preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in Afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 286–291.

Databases compiled for forest birds and forest mammals in the Afrotropics were tested for congruence of overall patterns and hotspots of species richness and endemism. We also looked at how well a near-minimum set of priority areas for one taxon catered for the second taxon. Overall species richness and richness hotspots of forest birds were significantly correlated with those of forest mammals, as was the case for overall endemism. Endemism hotspots for forest birds and mammals were not significantly correlated. The near-minimum set for forest birds represented 136 (76.5%) forest mammal species. The near-minimum set for forest mammals represented 350 (93.62%) forest bird species. However, to represent all forest mammals three times each, 51 grids were needed in addition to the 78 chosen as a near-minimum set for forest birds, and to represent all forest birds three times each, 43 more grids were needed in addition to the 80 selected for forest mammals. There is some congruence between the patterns of richness, endemism and near-minimum sets for forest birds and mammals in the Afrotropics, but the one taxon does not provide the ideal conservation solution for the other. Further refinement of the databases used in this paper would allow for more rigorous testing of congruence between these two groups.     

东灵山暖温带落叶阔叶次生林动态监测样地:物种组成与群落结构

群落结构状态是植被演替进程中的重要体现之一,同时也是下一步演替过程发生的基础.暖温带落叶阔叶次生林是中国暖温带森林植被的主要类型.为了更好地研究其演替动态、生物多样性维持机制,我们参照巴拿马Barro Colorado Island(BCI)50 ha热带雨林样地的技术规范,于2009年11月至2010年9月在北京门头沟区小龙门森林公园的暖温带落叶阔叶次生林内建立了一块20 ha的固定样地(简称DLS),对样地内胸径≥1 cm的所有木本植物进行了鉴定、调查及定位,分析了群落的组成和结构.结果表明,样地内木本植物有58种,隶属于18科33属.独立个体的总数为52,136,包括独立个体分枝的总数为103,284,全部为落叶树种.群落的区系类型以北温带成分居多,同时混有一些亚热带和热带成分,属典型的温带森林类型.群落优势种明显,个体数最多的前5个种的个体数占到总个体数的61%,前20个种占到92%,而其余38个种只占8%.群落成层现象明显,垂直结构由主林层(19个种)、次林层(18个种)和灌木层(21个种)组成.样地所有木本植物个体总径级分布呈倒"J"型,群落更新良好.主林层树种的径级结构近似于双峰或正态分布,而次林层和灌木层树种则表现出倒"J"型或"L"型.几个主要树种的空间分布表现出不同的分布格局,随着径级增大,聚集程度降低.空间分布格局显示主要优势种自身个体在其径级大小的空间分分布上互补,不同径级的个体占据了样地内不同的空间位置.     

Dissimilar bill shapes in new world tropical versus temperate forest foliage-gleaning birds

Summary The bill shape of foliage-gleaning birds in temperate and tropical new world forests is dissimilar. Tropical species have longer and narrower bills than their temperate zone counterparts. In addition, their bills are longer for a given body size. These differences cannot be readily explained as phylogenetic artifacts. I suggest that the distinct bill morphology of the two assemblages is determined by the type of insects that comprise the largest size classes of potential prey. These large insects are particularly important since they generally comprise the bulk of the nestling diet for insectivorous birds. In tropical forests Orthoptera are probably the most abundant large soft-bodied arthropods; they form an important resource for foliage-gleaning birds during the breeding (rainy) seasons. Most temperate zone foliage-gleaning birds rely almost entirely upon caterpillars when breeding. Long, narrow bills are thought to close more rapidly than shorter, broader bills. These long, fast bills may be required to efficiently harvest active Orthoptera. Migrant warblers may face morphological constraints from breeding successfully in lowland tropical forests. While the short-billed temperate zone birds can survive the tropical dry season by foraging on small arthropods, they may be inefficient at handling large Orthoptera to feed to nestlings.     

Conservation of temperate forest birds in Chile: implications from the study of an isolated forest relict

We characterize the bird assemblage of an isolated relict temperaterainforest (Santa Inés) in terms of its structure, composition anddynamics. The relict character and long-term isolation of this forest remnant,immersed in a matrix of semiarid scrub, provide a natural experiment to assessthe consequences of long-term isolation and forest area reduction for temperatebird species. Bird surveys were conducted in a forest fragment and thesurrounding scrub matrix between April 1999 (austral autumn) and October 2000(austral spring) on a seasonal basis. Within the forest fragment wedistinguished two microhabitat types: creeks and areas far from creeks (i.e.slopes). A total of 36 species were recorded in the study site, of which 21were inside the relict forest. Highest bird abundance and richness wererecorded during winter and spring, and these were always higher in creek plotsrather than slope plots. Comparisons between this assemblage and thosedistributed in the continuous temperate forest (located more than 900km southwards) indicate that this bird assemblage shares moresimilarities, with regard to bird species composition, to southern temperateforest localities and to other relict forests, than to nearer scrub habitats.However, there are eight species, endemic to temperate forests in southern SouthAmerica, missing from our system. In this regard, our analyses indicate thatthese eight endemic species should be of great conservation concern and willlikely be the ones that will go extinct first if the fragmentation of thetemperate forest continues.     

Gap‐crossing decisions of forest birds in a fragmented landscape

Habitat loss and fragmentation are recognized as primary drivers of biodiversity loss worldwide. To understand the functional effects of habitat fragmentation on bird populations, data on movement across gaps in habitat cover are necessary, although rarely available. In this study, we used call playback to simulate a conspecific territorial intruder to entice birds to move through the landscape in a predictable and directional manner. We then quantified the probability of movement in continuous forest and across cleared gaps for two forest‐dependent species, the grey shrike‐thrush (Colluricincla harmonica) and the white‐throated treecreeper (Cormobates leucophaeus). Fifty‐four playback trials were conducted for each species across distances ranging from 25 to 480 m in continuous forest and 15–260 m across gaps in a forest‐agricultural landscape in southern Victoria, Australia. The probability of movement was significantly reduced by gaps in forest cover for both species. Shrike‐thrushes were six times more likely to move 170 m in continuous forest than to cross 170‐m gaps. The mean probability that treecreepers would cross any gap at all was less than 0.5, and they were three times less likely to move 50 m across a gap than through continuous forest. Both species displayed non‐linear responses to increasing gap distance: we identified a gap‐tolerance threshold of 85 m for the shrike‐thrush and 65 m for the treecreeper beyond which individuals were most unlikely to cross. The presence of scattered paddock trees increased functional connectivity for the shrike‐thrush, with individuals crossing up to 260 m when scattered trees were present. We conclude that gaps in habitat cover are barriers to movement, and that characteristics of the intervening matrix influence landscape permeability.     

Diverse temperate forest bird assemblages demonstrate closer correspondence to plant species composition than vegetation structure

The aggregate structure of vegetation has long provided a strong conceptual basis for understanding the ecological separation of faunal species, while correspondence with plant species composition remains largely underdeveloped and considered secondary to structure. Longstanding ecological debate on the matter has likely been sustained by statistical methods incapable of accommodating an entire species composition in the explanatory role. We used direct ordination methodologies (predictive co‐correspondence and canonical correspondence analyses) that allow the comparison of prediction levels between composition and structure for understanding avian assemblage composition in a temperate forestland in southeastern Ohio. Compositional (birds and woody plants) and structural (both vertical and horizontal dimensions) data were collected from point samples comprising a spectrum in topography and successional state. Total woody plant composition (11.22%) explained more (cross‐validatory) variation in avian species composition than structure, quantified with dense LiDAR recordings (7.35%) and field methods (6.31%). Plant composition assumed an integrative character, synthesizing aspects of environmental condition, structure, and most likely species‐specific preferences for tree and shrub species that structural indices alone could not for predicting avian species composition. These results conflict with the traditional view that structure be most influential to avian assemblage composition. Instead these results demonstrate that plant and avian assemblages are closely linked, and that plant species per se can be a powerful tool for predicting avian habitat. More importantly, in furthering ecological understanding, it is critical to consider the complex web of interacting processes that make up temperate forest ecosystems, in which composition occupies a key position.     

Importance of patch scale vs landscape scale on selected forest birds

The management and protection of natural areas have primarily occurred in isolation from surrounding land management. The structure of surrounding land cover, however, may be important to the abundance and reproductive success of birds within a habitat patch. We investigated the relative importance of forest patch area, within patch habitat and surrounding landscape forest cover on the abundance of three Neotropical migrant bird species thought to be area-sensitive (ovenbird [ Seiurus aurocapillus ], wood thrush [ Hylocichla mustelina ] and red-eyed vireo [ Vireo olivaceus ]), and on pairing success of the ovenbird. We selected 31 isolated forest patches of differing sizes, and three 80-ha plots in continuous forest each centered within non-overlapping 200-ha landscapes, such that patch area and landscape forest cover were uncorrelated among landscapes. Each study plot was surveyed to estimate abundances of territorial males and ovenbird pairing success. Landscape forest cover ( p <0.05) explained the most variation in ovenbird abundance, while percent deciduous forest cover within patches ( p <0.05) and patch size ( p <0.05) explained the most variation in red-eyed vireo and wood thrush abundance, respectively. Patch size was a significant ( p <0.05) predictor of abundance for all three study species; however, density for all species decreased significantly ( p <0.05) with patch size. Ovenbird pairing success was higher in continuous forest plots than in forest patches ( p =0.018). This study's findings suggest that the relative importance of within patch characteristics, patch size and landscape forest cover varies for different bird species, and that conservation efforts would benefit from the inclusion of all three factors.     

Beyond the tropics: forest structure in a temperate forest mapped plot

Question: How do the diversity, size structure, and spatial pattern of woody species in a temperate (Mediterranean climate) forest compare to temperate and tropical forests? Location: Mixed evergreen coastal forest in the Santa Cruz Mountains, California, USA. Methods: We mapped, tagged, identified, and measured all woody stems (≥1 cm diameter) in a 6‐ha forest plot, following Center for Tropical Forest Science protocols. We compared patterns to those found in 14 tropical and 12 temperate forest plots. Results: The forest is dominated by Douglas‐fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and three species of Fagaceae (Quercus agrifolia, Q. parvula var. shrevei, and Lithocarpus densiflorus), and includes 31 woody species and 8180 individuals. Much of the diversity was in small‐diameter shrubs, treelets, and vines that have not been included in most other temperate forest plots because stems <5‐cm diameter had been excluded from study. The density of woody stems (1363 stems ha^?1) was lower than that in all but one tropical plot. The density of large trees (diameter ≥30 cm) and basal area were higher than in any tropical plot. Stem density and basal area were similar to most other temperate plots, but were less than in low‐diversity conifer forests. Rare species were strongly aggregated, with the degree of aggregation decreasing with abundance so that the most common species were significantly more regular than random. Conclusions: The patterns raise questions about differences in structure and dynamics between tropical and temperate forests; these need to be confirmed with additional temperate zone mapped plots that include small‐diameter individuals.     

The spatial distribution of birds and carabid beetles in pine plantation forests: the role of landscape composition and structure

Aim To evaluate the joint and independent effects of spatial location, landscape composition and landscape structure on the distribution patterns of bird and carabid beetle assemblages in a mosaic landscape dominated by pine plantation forests. Location A continuous 3000‐ha landscape mosaic with native maritime pine Pinus pinaster plantations of different ages, deciduous woodlands and open habitats, located in the Landes de Gascogne forest of south‐western France. Methods We sampled breeding birds by 20‐min point counts and carabid beetles by pitfall trapping using a systematic grid sampling of 200 points every 400 m over the whole landscape. Explanatory variables were composed of three data sets derived from GIS habitat mapping: (1) spatial variables (polynomial terms of geographical coordinates of samples), (2) landscape composition as the percentage cover of the six main habitats, and (3) landscape structure metrics including indices of fragmentation and spatial heterogeneity. We used canonical correspondence analysis with variance partitioning to evaluate the joint and independent effects of the three sets of variables on the ordination of species assemblages. Moran's I correlograms and Mantel tests were used to assess for spatial structure in species distribution and relationships with separate landscape attributes. Results Landscape composition was the main factor explaining the distribution patterns of birds and carabids at the mesoscale of 400 × 400 m. Independent effects of spatial variables and landscape structure were still significant for bird assemblages once landscape composition was controlled for, but not for carabid assemblages. Spatial distributions of birds and carabids were primarily influenced by the amount of heathlands, young pine plantations, herbaceous firebreaks and deciduous woodlands. Deciduous woodland species had positive responses to edge density, while open habitat species were positively associated with mean patch area. Main conclusions Forest birds were favoured by an increase in deciduous woodland cover and landscape heterogeneity, but there was no evidence for a similar effect on carabid beetles. Fragmentation of open habitats negatively affected both early‐successional birds and carabids, specialist species being restricted to large heathlands and young plantations. Several birds of conservation concern were associated with mosaics of woodlands and grasslands, especially meadows and firebreaks. Conserving biodiversity in mosaic plantation landscapes could be achieved by the maintenance of a significant amount of early‐successional habitats and deciduous woodland patches within a conifer plantation matrix.     

Effects of landscape composition on farmland and red-listed birds in boreal agricultural-forest mosaics

Farmland birds have declined in large areas of western and northern Europe. This decline has been connected with changes in the agricultural landscape. We studied the effects of landscape composition on birds in a boreal agricultural-forest mosaic in SW Finland. This study was carried out with a grid-based approach: bird pairs were counted in 105 grid squares of 25 ha within an area of 26.25 km². The total density of farmland birds and density of red-listed species were related to the land cover variables using generalized linear modelling (GLM). Farmland birds consist of a variable group of species either breeding or feeding in agricultural land. The model explained a moderate proportion (49%) of the variation in the total density of farmland birds in the landscape. In a regression analysis cover of non-arable agricultural land (semi-natural grasslands, built-up areas) explained a much higher proportion (r²=0.49) of the variation in farmland bird density than that of arable land (cultivated fields and set-aside fields, r²=0.04). Semi-natural grasslands, which have drastically declined throughout NW Europe, and built-up areas (mainly farmyards) had the most significant positive effects on the density of red-listed species. The results emphasize the significance of semi-natural grasslands for the declining red-listed farmland bird species. Birds are usually not restricted to certain patches of habitat but use several patches in their home range. Thus, when studying bird-landscape relations for land use planning, we also recommend grid-based approaches covering the whole landscape variation.     

Soil seed bank composition and diversity in a managed temperate deciduous forest

Little is known about the influence of forest management on the interaction between seed bank and aboveground vegetation. We surveyed seed banks and vegetation in 10 forest stands under similar abiotic conditions but submitted either to a coppice-with-standards treatment (n=5) or to a selective-cutting system (n=5). We analyzed species composition and diversity, community ecological profile, and distribution of taxa among different life forms, strategy, morphology and functional type categories. A total of 2085 seedlings (8296 seedsm^–2) germinated-corresponding to 28 species, among which Juncus effusus was the most abundant. Fifty-seven percent of the species were also recorded in the aboveground vegetation, the dominant species being Rubus fruticosus agg., but only 28% of the aboveground species were present in the seed bank. Our results suggest that (1) vernal geophytes and shade-tolerant perennials, which group most true forest species, are not incorporated in the seed bank, (2) parent plants of most seeds were present either in the stand in an earlier dynamic stage or apart from the stand and long-distance dispersed, (3) as expected, early-successional species are well represented in the seed bank, (4) forestry vehicles seem to be a major means of dispersion for stress-tolerant species normally found in forest lanes and wheel tracks. We conclude that seed banks contain species that have a potentially negative impact on the true forest flora and, thus, forest management should minimize soil disturbance and retain remnants of old-coppice woods to conserve disturbance-sensitive true forest species.