Essential oil composition of Eryngium rosulatum P.W. Michael ined.: A new undescribed species from eastern Australia

The essential oil composition from the aerial parts of a new Eryngium species from Australia, Eryngium rosulatum P.W. Michael ined., has been analysed by GC and GC/MS. A total of 34 compounds have been identified representing around 80% of the total oil. The main constituents of the oil were found to be β-elemene (16.0%) and bicyclogermacrene (12.5%). Other representative compounds were identified as δ-elemene (7.0%) and (E)-caryophyllene (5.9%). The sesquiterpene fraction (75.0%) was predominant in the essential oil of this species, most of these were hydrocarbons (53.8%). This paper represents the first study on this new, undescribed Australian species and its chemical composition.     

Essential oil composition of Achyrocline flaccida (Weinm.) DC. (Asteraceae) from different locations of Argentina

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the essential oils obtained from the inflorescences of Achyrocline flaccida (Asteraceae) has been investigated for the first time. Plant material was collected from eleven locations in Argentina. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation (0.1–0.8% v/w, dried material) and analyzed by GC–FID–MS. Eighty-three compounds were identified representing more than the 90% of the oils. The major components were α-pinene and β-caryophyllene. Statistical analysis was performed in order to evaluate the variability of the essential oils analyzed. Two groups were formed reflecting only quantitative differences in the content of major compounds. The chemical pattern of essential oils observed for A. flaccida is similar to other Achyrocline species studied, except Achyrocline hyperchlora.     

Essential oil variability within and among populations of Cunila incisa Benth.

To evaluate the intra- and interpopulational variability of volatile compounds in Cunila incisa, 72 samples representing 12 populations, were collected all over the distribution area of the species in Rio Grande do Sul State. The samples were extracted by steam distillation and analyzed using GC and GC–MS. A total of 19 volatile compounds were detected and identified. In average, the main compounds were 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, p-cymene, sabinene, terpinene-4-ol, and γ-terpinene. Negative correlation was detected between the concentrations of 1,8-cineole and α-terpineol. Significant variation in the concentration of volatile compounds was detected within and among populations. Multivariate analysis of volatile oil composition identified three groups. Most populations exhibited low intra-populational variation indicating foundation effect. Relation between geographic distribution and chemical composition was observed.     

Essential oil composition of Hypericum L. species from Southeastern Serbia and their chemotaxonomy

The essential oils of the aerial parts of nine species of Hypericum (Hypericum barbatum, Hypericum hirsutum, Hypericum linarioides, Hypericum maculatum, Hypericum olympicum, Hypericum perforatum, Hypericum richeri, Hypericum rumeliacum and Hypericum tetrapterum), collected from different locations in Southeast Serbia, were obtained by steam distillation and analyzed by GC and GC–MS. The essential oils investigated were characterized by a high content of non-terpene compounds and a low content of monoterpenes. The contents of non-terpenes, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes in oils of the species H. barbatum, H. richeri and H. rumeliacum (section Drosocaprium) were similar and these oils were characterized by high contents of fatty acids. The oils of H. hirsutum and H. linarioides (section Taeniocarpium) contained a high percentage of n-nonane. There were similarities in contents of non-terpenes and sesquiterpenes in oils of species that belong to the section Hypericum (H. maculatum, H. perforatum and H. tetrapterum). The oil of H. olympicum differed from others by higher terpene content. A comparison was also carried out of the chemical composition of the essential oils from flower, leaf and stem of H. perforatum and it revealed that the highest concentration of non-terpene compounds was found in the flower and stem oil, while a high concentration of sesquiterpenes was characteristic for leaf oil. There were significant differences in the concentrations of the same compounds in the essential oils of H. maculatum, H. olympicum and H. perforatum, collected in different years from the same location which could be explained by seasonal differences. All data were statistically processed with principal component analysis and cluster analysis. The main conclusion from the above data is that genetic and environmental factors both play a role in determining the composition of essential oils of the Hypericum species studied.     

Variability in essential oil composition of Turkish basils (Ocimum basilicum L.)

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), one of the most popular aromatic plants, shows great variation in both morphology and essential oil components. In this study, the composition of 18 Turkish basil essential oils was investigated by GC and GC–MS. Variation of essential oils in the landraces was subjected to cluster analysis, and seven different chemotypes were identified. They were (1) linalool, (2) methyl cinnamate, (3) methyl cinnamate/linalool, (4) methyl eugenol, (5) citral, (6) methyl chavicol (estragol), and (7) methyl chavicol/citral. Methyl chavicol with high citral contents (methyl chavicol/citral) can be considered as a “new chemotype” in the Turkish basils. Because methyl eugenol and methyl chavicol have structural resemblance to carcinogenic phenylpropanoids, chemotypes having high linalool, methyl cinnamate or citral contents and a mixture of these is suitable to cultivate for use in industry.     

Screening of the essential oil composition of wild Sicilian rosemary

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the essential oils obtained from wild Sicilian rosemary plants (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) has been investigated. Samples were collected in Sicily after an ideal division of the island into three large areas, namely Val Mazara (M), Val di Noto (N) and Val Demona (D), according to an ancient and historical territorial subdivision of the island. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-FID-MS, identifying 100 compounds representing more than 96% of the oils. Monoterpenes, both hydrocarbons and oxygenated, were the most highly represented components: the former with a range of 21–68% and the latter with a range of 29–79%. On the basis of the results of this study, comprising a cluster analysis, and on the commonly accepted subdivision of rosemary essential oils, namely cineoliferum, verbenoniferum and camphoriferum chemotypes, most of the wild Sicilian rosemary samples must be classified as cineoliferum chemotype.     

Essential oil composition of nine Apiaceae species from western United States that attract the female Indra Swallowtail butterfly (Papilio indra)

Aletes acaulis, Cymopterus hendersonii, Cymopterus panamintensis var. acutifolius, Lomatium rigidum, Lomatium scabrum var. tripinnatum, Musineon tenuifolium, Sphenosciadium capitellatum, Tauschia arguta and Tauschia parishii are among the twenty-two species of the Apiaceae family to which female Indra Swallowtail butterflies (Papilio indra: Lepidoptera) are attracted for oviposition. Because plant volatile oils are known to be attractants for female butterflies, the percent composition of the essential oils of each species was studied. Amongst the nine host plants 168 essential oil components were identified representing between 84% and 99% of the oils. Principal Components Analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis on the essential oil compositions of the larval host plants against four non-larval host plants separated the hosts from the non-hosts into distinct clusters. Volatile components of the oils common to the nine species of Apiaceae are correlated with the expression of physiological attraction behavior by the butterfly.     

Chemotaxonomy of Hypericum genus from Portugal: Geographical distribution and essential oils composition of Hypericum perfoliatum, Hypericum humifusum, Hypericum linarifolium and Hypericum pulchrum

The geographical distribution and analysis of the essential oils of species from three sections of Hypericum L. (Guttiferae/Clusiaceae/Hypericaceae) from Portugal are presented. Hypericum perfoliatum (section Drosocarpium) grows wild in the centre and south of Portugal; Hypericum humifusum and Hypericum linarifolium are both from section Oligostema, the former occurring throughout the country, while the second is distributed mainly in the north and centre; Hypericum pulchrum (section Taeniocarpium) is confined to the littoral north of Portugal. The essential oils were obtained by distillation–extraction, hydrodistillation and distillation in a modified Marcusson apparatus from the dried aerial parts of the different populations and were analysed by GC and GC–MS. Monoterpene hydrocarbons constituted the main fraction in all oils (43–69%, 53–85%, 28–45% and 48–65% for H. perfoliatum, H. humifusum, H. linarifolium and H. pulchrum, respectively). Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (2–13%, 6–18%, 21–27% and 16–18%, respectively) and a third fraction of non-terpenic compounds (20–29%, 3–16%, 2–14% and 5–11%, respectively) from the four species attained relatively high amounts in all oils. Within each species, no major differences were detected in the essential oil composition, despite the fact that different locations, phenological phases and extraction methodologies were used. Notwithstanding the dominance of α-pinene in all four species' oils, cluster and principal components analysis on the identified components showed that the range of α-pinene, β-pinene and n-nonane supported a separation of the four species. The essential oil composition of the four species showed some qualitative resemblances, which correlate well with the taxonomical classification based on morphological characters.     

Laurus novocanariensis essential oil: Seasonal variation and valorization

We investigated the qualitative and quantitative seasonal variation of the leaf and fruit oils of the Macaronesian endemism Laurus novocanariensis and their plant defensive potential. The monoterpene fraction dominated the leaf (74%) and berry essential oils (73–44%, ripe–unripe). The insect antifeedant effects of these oils were species- and season-dependent against the aphids (Myzus persicae and Rhopalosiphum padi). Overall, the biological effects of these oils correlated with the oxygenated terpene fraction. Among the pure components tested, β-caryophyllene and its oxide were strong antifeedants to Leptinotarsa decemlineata and Spodoptera littoralis. The aphids responded to β-ocimene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, linalool (antifeedants) and linalool oxide (attractive to M. persicae). The antifungal effects of the leaf oils on Fusarium spp. were season-dependent. β-Caryophyllene oxide proved to be a strong antifungal. L. novocanariensis oils inhibited Lactuca sativa germination and radicle elongation, the leaves being more effective. Linalool also inhibited seed germination.     

Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon giganteus essential oils alone and in combination

As part of ongoing research on the chemical composition and the antimicrobial properties of Burkinabe plants essential oils alone and in combination, essential oils (EOs) from leaves of Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon giganteus from Burkina Faso were analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Five constituents, which accounted for 96.3% of the oil, were identified in the EO of C. citratus. Geranial (48.1%), neral (34.6%) and myrcene (11.0%) were the major constituents. For C. giganteus a total of eight compounds were identified which represented 86.0% of the oils extracted. The dominant compounds were limonene (42%) and a set of monoterpene alcohols: trans-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol (14.2%), cis-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol (12%), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (5.6%) and cis-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (5.2%). The EOs were tested against nine bacteria by using disc diffusion and microdilution methods. C. giganteus EO showed antimicrobial effects against all microorganisms tested whereas C. citratus EO failed to inhibit Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antimicrobial activity of combinations of the two EOs was quantified by the checkerboard method. Combinations of the two EOs exerted synergistic, additive and indifferent antimicrobial effects. Results of the present investigation provide evidence that the combinations of plant EOs could be assessed for synergistic activity in order to reduce their minimum effective dose.     

Chemotypes of Achillea millefolium transferred from 14 different locations in Lithuania to the controlled environment

The composition of essential oils hydrodistilled from 19 samples of inflorescences and leaves of Achillea millefolium L. plants, which were transferred from 14 natural habitats in Lithuania to the field collection, is reported. Total content of oil was 0.15–0.55% in inflorescences and 0.06–0.19% (v/w) in leaves. In total 117 compounds were identified positively or tentatively. Data obtained clearly indicate the presence of a remarkable chemical polymorphism within the population of A. millefolium in Lithuania. The content of the major constituents in the oils from inflorescences varied in the following ranges: β-pinene, 0.33–62.29%; β-myrcene, 0.05–69.76%; α-phelandrene, 0.13–29.96%; 1,8-cineole, 2.30–21.57%; and chamazulene, 0.08–30.70%. According to the major components the essential oils' six chemotypes of A. millefolium were defined.     

Volatile oil comparison of cotyledon leaves of chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia

Oil quantity and quality were measured for the cotyledon leaves of the commercial terpinen-4-ol chemical variety of Melaleuca alternifolia. Oil yield obtained by ethanolic extraction was 3.8 micrograms per leaf or 2.6% (dry weight basis). The major components of the oil were alpha-pinene (7.4%), beta-pinene (12.0%) and terpinolene (27.3%). The non-commercial terpinolene chemical variety was found to be rich in 1,8-cineole (12.5%) and terpinolene (25.4%). The non-commercial 1,8-cineole chemical variety was rich in 1,8-cineole (37%) with significant quantities of alpha-pinene (15.5%), beta-pinene (23.3%) and terpinolene (10.9%). The cotyledon leaf composition, when compared with that of mature leaf from the same chemical variety, was found to be biased toward pinene and terpinolene biogenetic pathway constituents and hence not a good indicator of mature tree quality especially for the commercial terpinen-4-ol chemical variety. The implications of these analyses for the determination of M. alternifolia plantation quality and the understanding of oil formation, are discussed.     

Terpenoids inhibit Candida albicans growth by affecting membrane integrity and arrest of cell cycle

Anti-Candida potential of six terpenoids were evaluated in this study against various isolates of Candida albicans (n = 39) and non-C. albicans (n = 9) that are differentially susceptible to fluconazole. All the six terpenoids tested, showed excellent activity and were equally effective against isolates of Candida sps., tested in this study. Linalool and citral were the most effective ones, inhibiting all the isolates at ≤0.064% (v/v). Five among the six terpenoids tested were fungicidal. Time dependent kill curve assay showed that MFCs of linalool and eugenol were highly toxic to C. albicans, killing 99.9% inoculum within seven min of exposure, while that of citronellal, linalyl acetate and citral required 15 min, 1 h and 2 h, respectively. FIC index values (Linalool - 0.140, benzyl benzoate - 0.156, eugenol - 0.265, citral - 0.281 and 0.312 for linalyl acetate and citronellal) and isobologram obtained by checker board assay showed that all the six terpenoids tested exhibit excellent synergistic activity with fluconazole against a fluconazole resistant strain of C. albicans. Terpenoids tested arrested C. albicans cells at different phases of the cell cycle i.e. linalool and LA at G1, citral and citronellal at S phase and benzyl benzoate at G2-M phase and induced apoptosis. Linalool, citral, citronellal and benzyl benzoate caused more than 50% inhibition of germ tube induction at 0.008%, while eugenol and LA required 0.032 and 0.016% (v/v) concentrations, respectively. MICs of all the terpenoids for the C. albicans growth were non toxic to HeLa cells. Terpenoids tested exhibited excellent activity against C. albicans yeast and hyphal form growth at the concentrations that are non toxic to HeLa cells. Terpenoids tested in this study may find use in antifungal chemotherapy, not only as antifungal agents but also as synergistic agents along with conventional drugs like fluconazole.     

Application of vibrational spectroscopy in the quality assessment of Buchu oil obtained from two commercially important Agathosma species (Rutaceae)

Quality assessment of natural raw materials and derived consumer products is often done using conventional analytical techniques such as liquid and gas chromatography which are expensive and time consuming. This paper reports on the use of vibrational spectroscopy techniques as possible alternatives for the rapid and inexpensive assessment of the quality of ‘buchu oil’ obtained from two South African species; Agathosma betulina and Agathosma crenulata belonging to the Rutaceae family. Samples of A. betulina (55) and A. crenulata (16) were collected from different natural localities and cultivation sites in South Africa. The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and scanned on Near infrared (NIR), mid infrared (MIR) and Raman spectrometers. The spectral data obtained was processed using chemometric techniques and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) was used to clearly differentiate between A. betulina and A. crenulata. The OPLS-DA technique also proved to be a useful tool to identify wave regions that contain biomarkers (peaks) that contributed to the separation of the two species. The three spectroscopy techniques were also evaluated for their ability to accurately predict the percentage composition of seven major compounds that occur in A. betulina ‘buchu’ oil. Using GC–MS reference data, calibration models were developed for the MIR, NIR and Raman spectral data to predict/profile the major compounds in ‘buchu oil’. A comparison of the three spectroscopy techniques showed that MIR together with PLS algorithms produced the best model (R²X = 0.96; R²Y = 0.88 and Q²Ycum = 0.85) for the quantification of six of the seven major oil constituents. The MIR model showed high predictive power for pseudo-diosphenol (R² = 0.97), isomenthone (R² = 0.97), menthone (R² = 0.90), limonene (R² = 0.91), pulegone (R² = 0.96) and diosphenol (R² = 0.85). These results illustrate the potential of MIR spectroscopy as a rapid and inexpensive alternative to predict the major compounds in buchu oil.     

Essential oil variation of cultivated and wild Perilla analyzed by GC/MS

Twenty components extracted from the essential oil in the leaves of 172 samples of Perilla frutescens var. crispa (vegetable crop form), P. frutescens var. frutescens (oil crop form), the wild/weedy form of P. frutescens, and three wild Perilla species, Perilla citriodora, Perilla hirtella and Perilla setoyensis were analyzed using GC/MS. A wide range of essential oil components were found among the wild/weedy form of P. frutescens, whereas distinctive components were detected in each wild Perilla species. Egomaketone, asaron, methyleugenol and 4,6-dimethoxy- or 4,7-dimethoxy-5-(2-propenyl)-1,3-dioxaindan were detected from Perilla for the first time. Limonene derivatives, piperitone and piperitenone, were detected from P. citriodora. Discovery of the limonene derivatives in this Perilla species provides evidence of this wild species being a genome donor of P. frutescens, while limonene synthase has been considered to be a specific enzyme in cultivated P. frutescens. These results will be useful for the evaluation and utilization of Perilla genetic resources.     

Essential oil variability in Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. growing wild in Southern Apulia (Italy)

Essential oils of Thymbra capitata (Thymus capitatus) collected from Southern Apulia (Italy) were analysed using gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry techniques, to check for chemical variability. The study showed that among the 75 components of the oils the most recurrent ones were thymol and carvacrol, which always constituted more than 50% of the oils, as well as γ-terpinene, borneol and p-cymene. Cluster analysis led to the identification of three chemotypes: thymol, carvacrol and thymol/carvacrol; this was presumably a crossbreed between the other two chemotypes. Principal component analysis showed the direct correlation among myrcene, α-terpinene and γ-terpinene; anti-correlation between thymol and carvacrol, and the inverse correlation between linalool and myrcene. Moreover, lower thymol concentrations were accompanied by an increase in myrcene, α-terpinene and γ-terpinene.     

Insecticidal activity and chemical composition of the essential oil of Artemisia vestita from China against Sitophilus zeamais

In our screening program for new agrochemicals from local wild plants, essential oil of Artemisia vestita Wall (Asteraceae) was found to possess strong insecticidal activity against maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motsch. Essential oil of aerial parts of A. vestita was obtained from hydrodistillation and was investigated by GC and GC–MS. The main components of essential oil were grandisol (40.29%), 1,8-cineol (14.88%) and camphor (11.37%). The essential oil of A. vestita possessed strong fumigant toxicity against S. zeamais adults with a LC₅₀ value of 13.42 mg/L air. The essential oil of A. vestita also showed contact toxicity against S. zeamais adults with a LD₅₀ value of 50.62 mg/adult.     

In vitro and in vivo screening of essential oils for the control of wet bubble disease of Agaricus bisporus

Proliferation of fungal pathogens, such as Mycogone perniciosa, can severely affect the yields of cultivated mushrooms, including that of the button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. A reduction in the number of fungicidal products approved for commercial application is currently providing new challenges to the mushroom industry. Forty essential oils, seven pure terpenoids and one phenylpropanoid were screened in vitro to determine the abilities of these substances to inhibit the growth of M. perniciosa. The fungal growth medium of both A. bisporus and M. perniciosa was supplemented with each test substance at a concentration of 50 μL/L. Ten essential oils were further investigated at lower concentrations ranging from 5 to 40 μL/L. The main components of these oils were determined by GC–FID and GC–MS. Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) oils were found to substantially inhibit the growth of the pathogen, while demonstrating lower toxicity towards A. bisporus than any of the other oils tested. A preliminary in vivo trial using M. perniciosa-inoculated casings revealed that the preventative use of lemon verbena or thyme oils was able to control the development of the disease. A commercial trial using these oils, as well as two of their main components (nerol and thymol), at a concentration of 40 μL/L, revealed that none of these treatments were detrimental to the growth of the A. bisporus and an overall yield similar to that following application of a commercial fungicide (Chronos 450 SC) was obtained. These results suggest that essential oils or mixtures of selected pure components of essential oils may in future find application in button mushroom production, either as a substitute for synthetic fungicides or as an additional protective measure.     

Leaf essential oil composition of 10 species of Ocotea (Lauraceae) from Monteverde,Costa Rica

The leaf essential oils of 10 species of Ocotea (Lauraceae) from Monteverde, Costa Rica (Ocotea floribunda, Ocotea holdridgeana, Ocotea meziana, Ocotea sinuata, Ocotea tonduzii, Ocotea valeriana, Ocotea veraguensis, Ocotea whitei, and two undescribed species, Ocotea new species “los llanos”, and Ocotea new species “small leaf”) have been obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC–MS in order to discern the differences and similarities between the volatile chemical compositions of these species. The principal common constituents of the 10 species of Ocotea were α-pinene, β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene-D.