Complementation of chromosomal aberrations in AT/NBS hybrids: inadequacy of RDS as an endpoint in complementation studies with immortal NBS cells

Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS) and ataxia telangiectasia (AT) are rare autosomal recessive hereditary disorders characterized by radiosensitivity, chromosomal instability, immunodeficiency and proneness to cancer. Although the clinical features of both syndromes are quite distinct, the cellular characteristics are very similar. Cells from both NBS and AT patients are hypersensitive to ionizing radiation (IR), show elevated levels of chromosomal aberrations and display radioresistant DNA synthesis (RDS). The proteins defective in NBS and AT, NBS1 and ATM, respectively, are involved in the same pathway, but their exact relationship is not yet fully understood. Stumm et al. (Am. J. Hum. Genet. 60 (1997) 1246) have reported that hybrids of AT and NBS lymphoblasts were not complemented for chromosomal aberrations. In contrast, we found that X-ray-induced cell killing as well as chromosomal aberrations were complemented in proliferating NBS-1LBI/AT5BIVA hybrids, comparable to that in NBS-1LBI cells after transfer of a single human chromosome 8 providing the NBS1 gene. RDS observed in AT5BIVA cells was reduced in these hybrids to the level of that seen in immortal NBS-1LBI cells. However, the level of DNA synthesis, following ionizing radiation, in SV40 transformed wild-type cell lines was the same as in NBS-1LBI cells. Only primary wild-type cells showed stronger inhibition of DNA synthesis. In summary, these results clearly indicate that RDS cannot be used as an endpoint in functional complementation studies with immortal NBS-1LBI cells, whereas the cytogenetic assay is suitable for complementation studies with immortal AT and NBS cells.     

The action of ionizing radiation on DNA replication in the cells of a healthy human subject and of a patient with Down's syndrome

Using DNA fiber autoradiography we have revealed a new defect earlier unknown in Down's syndrome but analogous to that earlier shown by the authors in AT and basal cell nevus. This syndrome involves a significantly decreased number of simultaneously operating groups of replicons compared to that in normal cells., the rate of fork movement and the fusion of neighbouring units in the group being unchanged. Ionizing radiation (5 Gy) does not change the rate of DNA chain growth in the cells derived from the affected individuals, however, it significantly reduces this parameter in normal cells due to inhibition of replicon initiation in the whole clusters. Thus, radioresistant DNA synthesis in chromosomal instability syndromes may be explained by some defect in DNA replication in unirradiated cells analogous to that in irradiated normal cells.     

Human RAD50 Deficiency in a Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome-like Disorder

The MRE11/RAD50/NBN (MRN) complex plays a key role in recognizing and signaling DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Hypomorphic mutations in NBN (previously known as NBS1) and MRE11A give rise to the autosomal-recessive diseases Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS) and ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder (ATLD), respectively. To date, no disease due to RAD50 deficiency has been described. Here, we report on a patient previously diagnosed as probably having NBS, with microcephaly, mental retardation, ‘bird-like’ face, and short stature. At variance with this diagnosis, she never had severe infections, had normal immunoglobulin levels, and did not develop lymphoid malignancy up to age 23 years. We found that she is compound heterozygous for mutations in the RAD50 gene that give rise to low levels of unstable RAD50 protein. Cells from the patient were characterized by chromosomal instability; radiosensitivity; failure to form DNA damage-induced MRN foci; and impaired radiation-induced activation of and downstream signaling through the ATM protein, which is defective in the human genetic disorder ataxia-telangiectasia. These cells were also impaired in G1/S cell-cycle-checkpoint activation and displayed radioresistant DNA synthesis and G2-phase accumulation. The defective cellular phenotype was rescued by wild-type RAD50. In conclusion, we have identified and characterized a patient with a RAD50 deficiency that results in a clinical phenotype that can be classified as an NBS-like disorder (NBSLD).     

Brca2 (XRCC11) Deficiency Results in Radioresistant DNA Synthesis and a Higher Frequency of Spontaneous Deletions

We show here that the radiosensitive Chinese hamster cell mutant (V-C8) of group XRCC11 is defective in the breast cancer susceptibility gene Brca2. The very complex phenotype of V-C8 cells is complemented by a single human chromosome 13 providing the BRCA2 gene, as well as by the murine Brca2 gene. The Brca2 deficiency in V-C8 cells causes hypersensitivity to various DNA-damaging agents with an extreme sensitivity toward interstrand DNA cross-linking agents. Furthermore, V-C8 cells show radioresistant DNA synthesis after ionizing radiation, suggesting that Brca2 deficiency affects cell cycle checkpoint regulation. In addition, V-C8 cells display tremendous chromosomal instability and a high frequency of abnormal centrosomes. The mutation spectrum at the hprt locus showed that the majority of spontaneous mutations in V-C8 cells are deletions, in contrast to wild-type V79 cells. A mechanistic explanation for the genome instability phenotype of Brca2-deficient cells is provided by the observation that the nuclear localization of the central DNA repair protein in homologous recombination, Rad51, is reduced in V-C8 cells.     

Genotype-phenotype relationships in ataxia-telangiectasia and variants.

Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by cerebellar degeneration, immunodeficiency, chromosomal instability, radiosensitivity, and cancer predisposition. A-T cells are sensitive to ionizing radiation and radiomimetic chemicals and fail to activate cell-cycle checkpoints after treatment with these agents. The responsible gene, ATM, encodes a large protein kinase with a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like domain. The typical A-T phenotype is caused, in most cases, by null ATM alleles that truncate or severely destabilize the ATM protein. Rare patients with milder manifestations of the clinical or cellular characteristics of the disease have been reported and have been designated "A-T variants." A special variant form of A-T is A-TFresno, which combines a typical A-T phenotype with microcephaly and mental retardation. The possible association of these syndromes with ATM is both important for understanding their molecular basis and essential for counseling and diagnostic purposes. We quantified ATM-protein levels in six A-T variants, and we searched their ATM genes for mutations. Cell lines from these patients exhibited considerable variability in radiosensitivity while showing the typical radioresistant DNA synthesis of A-T cells. Unlike classical A-T patients, these patients exhibited 1%-17% of the normal level of ATM. The underlying ATM genotypes were either homozygous for mutations expected to produce mild phenotypes or compound heterozygotes for a mild and a severe mutation. An A-TFresno cell line was found devoid of the ATM protein and homozygous for a severe ATM mutation. We conclude that certain "A-T variant" phenotypes represent ATM mutations, including some of those without telangiectasia. Our findings extend the range of phenotypes associated with ATM mutations.     

Chromosome instability in lymphocytes from a patient with Werner's syndrome is not associated with DNA repair defects

Different cellular parameters used to detect genetic instability were analyzed in lymphocytes from a patient affected by Werner's syndrome (WS). Cytogenetic studies indicated the presence of structural and numerical chromosomal abnormalities and the occurrence of variegated translocation mosaicism. The baseline mutation frequency was similar to that observed in normal donor samples. DNA repair investigations showing a normal capability to perform UV-induced DNA repair synthesis and a normal sensitivity to various mutagens (UVC light, mono- and bi-functional alkylating agents) indicate that different DNA repair mechanisms act normally in WS. In this feature, WS appears to differ from the other genetically determined syndromes in which chromosomal instability is associated with a marked hypersensitivity to specific DNA-damaging agents.     

Suppression of the transformed phenotype with retention of the viral ‘src’ gene in cell hybrids between rous sarcoma virus-transformed rat cells and untransformed mouse cells

Hybrid cell lines between untransformed mouse 3T3TK-cells and normal rat kidney (NRK) cells transformed by the B77 strain of Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) express a non-transformed phenotype, as determined by anchorage-dependent growth and organization of microfilament bundles. Virus rescue experiments and genetic experiments using an RSV mutant temperature-sensitive for maintenance of the transformed phenotype demonstrate that RSV is retained in the non-transformed hybrids. The action of the viral transformation gene ‘src’ therefore appears to be ‘suppressed’ in these hybrids. The suppressed hybrids generate variants in which the expression of the transformed phenotype and the ‘src’ gene is regained. This system should prove to be of value in identifying cellular genes involved in the expression of virally induced transformation.     

Disruption of DNA replication in non-irradiated cells in basal cell nevus syndrome and the effect of ionizing radiation

Analysis of DNA fiber autoradiograms from basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS) skin fibroblasts has revealed for the first time a new defect in DNA replication earlier unknown in other chromosomal instability syndromes, that involves a significantly decreased rate of DNA-chain growth in unirradiated cells. Here we present evidence that the defect may be due to a marked reduction in number of simultaneously operating groups of replicons compared to that in normal cells, the rate of fork movement and the fusion of neighbouring units in the group remaining unchanged. Radioresistant DNA synthesis was observed in the BCNS cells. The exposure of cells derived from normal donor to gamma-rays at a dose of 5 Gy reduces the number of simultaneously operating groups of replicons to the level occurring in unirradiated BCNS cells, the rate of folk movement being unchanged in both cell types. However, the incidence of fusion between neighbouring units within the group is lower in the cells exposed to gamma-rays, due perhaps to a radiation-induced lesion in the group. Thus, ionizing radiation reduces the rate of DNA synthesis to the same level, however from different initial levels. Our data suggest that the phenomenon of radioresistant DNA synthesis may be explained by the presence of the initial defect in DNA replication in BCNS or any other chromosomal instability disorders.     

Radioresistant DNA synthesis: an intrinsic feature of ataxia telangiectasia

DNA synthesis in 6 ataxia langiectasia (AT) cell strains was much more resistant to X-irradiation than was DNA synthesis in normal human diploid cells. 3 of the cell strains tested have been classified as proficient in repair replication. These data, along with those reported elsewhere, strongly suggest that radioresistant DNA synthesis is an intrinsic feature of this disease.The radioresistance of DNA synthesis in AT cells is primarily due to a reduced inhibition of replicon initiation compared to that occuring in normal cells, but DNA chain elongation is also more radioresistant in AT cells. The small inhibition of DNA synthesis that does occur in AT cells at doses up to 2000 rad is almost exclusively due to inhibition of replicon initiation and not to inhibition of chain elongation, as would be expected from results with normal human cells or from previous studies with established cell lines.     

Patients with an inherited syndrome characterized by immunodeficiency, microcephaly, and chromosomal instability: genetic relationship to ataxia telangiectasia.

Fibroblast cultures from six unrelated patients having a familial type of immunodeficiency combined with microcephaly, developmental delay, and chromosomal instability were studied with respect to their response to ionizing radiation. The cells from five of them resembled those from individuals with ataxia telangiectasia (AT) in that they were two to three times more radiosensitive on the basis of clonogenic cell survival. In addition, after exposure to either X-rays or bleomycin, they showed an inhibition of DNA replication that was less pronounced than that in normal cells and characteristic of AT fibroblasts. However, the patients are clinically very different from AT patients, not showing any signs of neurocutaneous symptoms. Genetic complementation studies in fused cells, with the radioresistant DNA synthesis used as a marker, showed that the patients' cells could complement representatives of all presently known AT complementation groups. Furthermore, they were shown to constitute a genetically heterogeneous group as well. It is concluded that these patients are similar to AT patients with respect to cytological parameters. The clinical differences between these patients and AT patients are a reflection of genetic heterogeneity. The data indicate that the patients suffer from a chromosome-instability syndrome that is distinct from AT.     

Ultrastructure of meristematic cells of dormant and released buds in Tradescantia paludosa

The lateral bud meristems of Tradescantia paludosa show a characteristic cytohistological zonation during dormancy. The cells comprising this so called ‘zone of inhibition’, which is located at the extreme tip of the bud apex, rarely synthesize nuclear DNA or undergo mitotic division. These nuclei are as large as prophase nuclei, yet contain only telophase (2C) amounts of DNA and significantly lower amounts of histone as compared to the 2C nuclei of the actively dividing cells.Ultrastructural observations of the nuclei in the ‘zone of inhibition’ show that a large proportion of the chromatin is organized as less condensed, diffuse, euchromatin fibrils; however, the chromatin of the actively dividing nuclei of the cells outside the ‘zone of inhibition’ or in the released bud meristems is organized to a greater extent as condensed clumps of heterochromatin. When the dormancy is released, the nuclei in the ‘zone of inhibition’ synthesize DNA and histone and undergo cell division in approx. 4 days. Striking changes in the organization of chromatin fibrils take place during this transition period. The diffuse chromatin fibrils of the nuclei in the ‘zone of inhibition’ progressively become more and more condensed as the cell prepares to undergo the first mitotic division after the release of dormancy. This change which is coupled with the synthesis of histones in the nuclei of the ‘zone of inhibition’ suggests a prominent structural role of these basic proteins in the organization of the chromatin. The large volume of 2C nuclei of the ‘zone of inhibition’ seems, therefore, to result not from a great nuclear mass, but probably from a relatively small degree of condensation of chromatin.     

Increase in DNA synthesis in Werner''s syndrome cells by hybridization with normal human diploid and HeLa cells

The dominance or recessiveness of the senescent phenotype in cells from patients with Werner's syndrome (WS cells) was investigated using cell fusion. The [³H]thymidine labeling index of normal human diploid fibroblast cell X WS cell heterodikaryons was considerably lower than that of normal homodikaryons, but was significantly higher than that of WS homodikaryons. The labeling index of WS cell X HeLa cell heterodikaryons was the same as that of HeLa homodikaryons. The labeling indices of heterodikaryons obtained by fusion between various strains of premature aging cells were as low as those of parental homodikaryons. These results indicate: (1) the senescent phenotype of WS cells appears to be partially recessive to the phenotype of normal cells and completely recessive to that of HeLa cells; (2) the marked inhibition of DNA synthesis in normal nuclei in heterodikaryons with WS cells could be due to ‘senescent factor(s)’ in WS cells; and (3) no complementation phenomenon was observed among genetically different premature aging cells, probably due to ‘senescent factor(s)’.     

Warsaw Breakage Syndrome, a Cohesinopathy Associated with Mutations in the XPD Helicase Family Member DDX11/ChlR1

The iron-sulfur-containing DNA helicases XPD, FANCJ, DDX11, and RTEL represent a small subclass of superfamily 2 helicases. XPD and FANCJ have been connected to the genetic instability syndromes xeroderma pigmentosum and Fanconi anemia. Here, we report a human individual with biallelic mutations in DDX11. Defective DDX11 is associated with a unique cellular phenotype in which features of Fanconi anemia (drug-induced chromosomal breakage) and Roberts syndrome (sister chromatid cohesion defects) coexist. The DDX11-deficient patient represents another cohesinopathy, besides Cornelia de Lange syndrome and Roberts syndrome, and shows that DDX11 functions at the interface between DNA repair and sister chromatid cohesion.     

Biosynthesis of Hb in individual fetal liver bursts : γ-Chain production peaks earlier than β-chain in the erythropoietic pathway

The relative synthesis of α-, β-, ^Gγ- and ^Aγ-globin chains has been evaluated in single fetal liver bursts, which were grown in methylcellulose cultures, individually labelled with [³H]leucine and then analysed via iso-electric focusing. Well-hemoglobinized bursts demonstrate a homogeneous globin synthetic pattern, characterized by prevalent HbF (+some HbA) synthesis: thus, they apparently originate from a homogeneously programmed population of erythroid burst-forming unit (BFU-E). On day 8–9 of culture, the synthetic pattern in ‘mature’ (i.e., well-hemoglobinized) bursts has been compared with that in simultaneously-grown, ‘immature’ (i.e., poorly-hemoglobinized) colonies. These patterns have been further compared with that in ‘matured’ bursts (identified in situ as immature on day 8–9 and labelled 2–4 days later when matured). The ‘immature’ colonies showed very low levels of relative β-globin synthesis, while the ‘mature’ ones demonstrated a more elevated production of β-chain. Significantly, the ‘matured’ bursts showed a globin chain synthetic pattern similar to that of previously labelled ‘matured’ colonies. It is postulated therefore that in fetal liver (and also in adult marrow) the synthesis of γ-chain is linked to an early differentiation stage of erythroblasts, while β-globin synthesis is largely activated at a more advanced maturation stage.     

Down syndrome: pathogenesis,radioresistant DNA synthesis and chromosomal instability

Down syndrome (DS) is a frequent chromosomal aberration. Triplication of the fragment 21q22 of chromosome 21 is sufficient to cause the DS phenotype including immunodeficiency, premature aging, mental retardation, and an increased risk of leukemia. Chromosomal aberrations caused by X-ray irradiation were observed in DS lymphocytes and DS fibroblasts, but the correlation between chromosomal sensitivity, repair deficiency, and radioresistant DNA synthesis was not clear. Here some insight into the nature of this problem has been made. Besides, new arguments have been provided in favour of genetic heterogeneity of this genetic disorder.     

Reorganization of DNA replicating system induced by 5-fluorodeoxyuridine and caffeine as the basis for radiosensitivity in human calls

Treatment of diploid human fibroblasts with 5-fluorodeoryuridine (FUdR) and caffeine results in the increase in cellular radiosensitivity in terms of survival and chromosomal aberrations, on the one hand, and in radioresistant DNA synthesis (RDS), on the other hand, i.e. rather mimics those in mutant cells from patients with AT, XPII, Down syndrome, and others. A study was made of the autoradiographic length of simultaneously active adjacent replicon clusters. After incubation of diploid human cells with FUdR (10(-6) M, 6 h), this parameter was shown to reduce by two-fold, remaining unchanged upon 5 Gy irradiation. In contrast, after incubation of the cells with caffeine (2 mM, 30 min), this parameter was longer, compared to that in intact cells; upon 5 Gy irradiation the values remained almost the same as in the control. A possible relation of the data to the cellular radiosensitivity and RDS in the cells incubated with FUdR and caffeine is discussed.     

Sequence dependent hydration of DNA

The transitions between the different helical conformations of DNA depend on the base sequence and the ambient conditions such as humidity and counter-ion concentration. In this study energy minimization techniques have been used to locate water molecule sites around nucleotides especially those which form hydrogen bonds between two or more nucleotide atoms and thus form solvent mediated bridges. We have studied several sequences and find that those which are known not to exist in the low hydration ‘A’ form have very similar number of bridging sites in both ‘A’ and ‘B’ conformations. Those sequences which are found in the ‘A’ conformation have considerably more bridging sites in this low hydration form than in the ‘B’ conformation. Sequence related solvent effects for a given conformation have also been analysed.     

Spontaneous chromosomal instability in peripheral blood lymphocytes from two molecularly confirmed Italian patients with Hereditary Fibrosis Poikiloderma: insights into cancer predisposition

Two Italian patients with the initial clinical diagnosis of Rothmund-Thomson syndrome were negative for RECQL4 mutations but showed in peripheral blood cells a spontaneous chromosomal instability significantly higher than controls. Revisiting after time their clinical phenotype, the suggestive matching with the autosomal dominant syndrome Poikiloderma, Hereditary Fibrosing with Tendon Contracture, Myopathy and Pulmonary fibrosis (POIKTMP) was confirmed by identification of the c.1879A>G (p.Arg627Gly) alteration in FAM111B. We compare the overall clinical signs of our patients with those of reported carriers of the same mutation and present the up-to-date mutational repertoire of FAM111B and the related phenotypic spectrum. Our snapshot highlights the age-dependent clinical expressivity of POIKTMP and the need to follow-up patients to monitor the multi-tissue impairment caused by FAM111B alterations. We link our chromosomal instability data to the role of FAM111B in cancer predisposition, pointed out by its implication in DNA-repair pathways and the outcome of pancreatic cancer in 2 out of 17 adult POIKTMP patients. The chromosomal instability herein highlighted well connects POIKTMP to cancer-predisposing syndromes, such as Rothmund-Thomson which represents the first hereditary poikiloderma entering in differential diagnosis with POIKTMP.     

Mechanisms of primer RNA synthesis and D-loop/R-loop-dependent DNA replication in Escherichia coli

In DNA replication, DNA chains are generally initiated from small pieces of ribonucleotides attached to DNA templates. These ‘primers’ are synthesized by various enzymatic mechanisms in Escherichia coli. Studies on primer RNA synthesis on single-stranded DNA templates containing specific ‘priming signals’ revealed the presence of two distinct modes, ie immobile and mobile priming. The former includes primer RNA synthesis by primase encoded by dnaG and by RNA polymerase containing a σ⁷⁰ subunit. Priming is initiated at a specific site in immobile priming. Novel immobile priming signals were identified from various plasmid replicaons, some of which function in initiation of the leading strand synthesis. The latter, on the other hand, involves a protein complex, primosome, which contains DnaB, the replicative helicase for E coli chromosomal replication. Utilizing the energy fueled by ATP hydrolysis of DnaB protein, primosomes are able to translocate on a template DNA and primase synthesizes primer RNAs at multiple sites. Two distinct primosomes. DnaA-dependent primosome supports normal chromosomal identified, which are differentially utilized for E coli chromosomal replication. Whereas DnaA-dependent primosome supports normal chromosomal replication from oriC, the PriA-dependent primosome functions in oriC-independent chromosomal replication observed in DNA-damaged cells or cells lacking RNaseH activity. In oriC-independent replication, PriA protein may recognize the D- or R-loop structure, respectively, to initiate assembly of a primosome which mediates primer RNA synthesis and replication fork progression.