The aromatic hydrocarbon receptor modulates the Hepa 1c1c7 cell cycle and differentiated state independently of dioxin.

The aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) has been defined and characterized according to its ability to mediate biological responses to exogenous ligands, such as the synthetic environmental contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). The natural ligand(s) for AhR is unknown, and we know relatively little about AhR function in the absence of TCDD. Here, we have exploited the availability of AhR-defective (AhR-D) mouse hepatoma (Hepa 1c1c7) cells to analyze AhR's effects under conditions in which TCDD is not present. Our results reveal that AhR-D cells exhibit a different morphology, decreased albumin synthesis, and a prolonged doubling time compared with wild-type cells. Introduction of AhR cDNA into AhR-D cells by stable transfection alters these characteristics such that the cells resemble wild-type cells. Conversely, introduction of antisense AhR cDNA into wild-type cells changes their phenotype such that they resemble AhR-D cells. Fluorescence microscopy reveals that AhR-D cells do not exhibit an increased rate of death. Flow cytometric and biochemical analyses imply that the slowed growth rate of AhR-D cells reflects prolongation of G1. Our findings reveal a potential link between AhR and the G1 phase of the Hepa 1c1c7 cell cycle. These effects of AhR occur in the absence of TCDD. We speculate that they represent responses to an endogenous AhR ligand in Hepa 1c1c7 cells.     

12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate upregulates the Ah receptor and differentially alters CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 expression in MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Elevated expression of cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) and estradiol 4-hydroxylation have been reported to be biomarkers of tumorigenesis in humans. The aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) regulates expression of human cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) and CYP1B1, 17β-estradiol (E₂) 2- and 4-hydroxylases, respectively. There is also evidence that expression of estrogen receptor α (ERα) potentiates CYP1A1 inducibility in breast cancer cells. To characterize these relationships further, we examined the effects of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), which downregulates ERα, and the high-affinity AhR ligand, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), on the expression of AhR, ERα, CYP1A1, and CYP1B1 in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Treatment with TPA, which suppressed ERα mRNA levels, caused a greater than fourfold elevation of AhR mRNA and protein levels, whereas treatment with TCDD caused a decrease in AhR protein but no change in ERα or AhR mRNA levels. In MCF-7 cells treated with TPA prior to treatment with TCDD, the AhR mRNA level was elevated, the ERα mRNA level remained suppressed, and the ratio of CYP1B1 to CYP1A1 mRNA was increased compared with treatment with TCDD alone. A corresponding increase in the ratio of the rates of 4- to 2-hydroxylation pathways of E₂ metabolism was also observed in response to pretreatment with TPA prior to the addition of TCDD. These results demonstrate differential regulation of the human CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 genes and provide a cellular model to investigate further the mechanisms that may be involved in the elevated expression of CYP1B1 in tumorigenesis. J. Cell. Biochem. 70:289–296, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Role of CYP3A4 in the regulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor by omeprazole sulphide

Cross-talk between nuclear receptors involved in the control of drug metabolism is being increasingly recognised as a source of drug side effects. Omeprazole is a well known activator of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). We investigated the regulation of AhR by omeprazole-sulphide, a degradation metabolite of omeprazole, using CYP1A mRNA induction, reporter gene assay, receptor DNA binding, ligand binding, nuclear translocation, trypsin digests, and drug metabolism analysis in mouse Hepa-1c1c7, human HepG2 cells and primary human hepatocytes. Omeprazole-sulphide is a pure antagonist of AhR in Hepa-1c1c7 and HepG2 hepatoma cell lines. In Hepa-1c1c7 cells, omeprazole-sulphide is a ligand of AhR, inhibits AhR activation to a DNA-binding form, induces a specific pattern of AhR trypsin digestion and inhibits AhR nuclear translocation and subsequent degradation in response to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. However, in highly differentiated primary human hepatocytes treated with rifampicin an agonist of the pregnane X receptor (PXR), omeprazole-sulphide behaves as an agonist of AhR. Inhibition of drug metabolizing enzymes by ketoconazole restores the antagonist effect of omeprazole-sulphide. Metabolic LC/MS analysis reveals that omeprazole-sulphide (AhR antagonist) is efficiently converted to omeprazole (AhR activator) by cytochrome P450 CYP3A4, a target gene of PXR, in primary human hepatocytes but not in hepatoma cells in which PXR is not expressed. This report provides the first evidence for a cross-talk between PXR/CYP3A4 and AhR. In addition, it clearly shows that conclusions drawn from experiments carried out in cell lines may lead to erroneous in vivo predictions in man.     

A potential endogenous ligand for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor has potent agonist activity in vitro and in vivo

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is best known as a mediator of toxicity of a diverse family of xenobiotic chemicals such as dioxins and PCBs. However, many naturally occurring compounds also activate AhR. One such compound, 2-(1'H-indole-3'-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), was isolated from tissue and found to be potent in preliminary tests [J. Song, M. Clagett-Dame, R.E. Peterson, M.E. Hahn, W.M. Westler, R.R. Sicinski, H.F. DeLuca, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 (2002) 14694-14699]. We have synthesized ITE and [(3)H]ITE and further evaluated its AhR activity in several in vitro and in vivo assays in comparison with the toxic ligand, TCDD. AhR in Hepa1c1c7 cell cytosol bound [(3)H]ITE with high affinity and the AhR.ITE complex formed in vitro bound dioxin response element (DRE) oligonucleotide as potently as TCDD.AhR. In cells treated with ITE, nuclear translocation of AhR, and induction of CYP1A1 protein and of a DRE-dependent luciferase reporter gene were observed. ITE administered to pregnant DRE-LacZ transgenic mice activated fetal AhR, observed as X-gal staining in the same sites as in TCDD-treated mice. However, unlike TCDD, ITE did not induce cleft palate or hydronephrosis. TCDD but not ITE induced thymic atrophy in young adult mice, but both ITE and TCDD caused similar loss of cells and alterations of cell profiles in cultured fetal thymi. These data demonstrate that ITE is a potent AhR agonist in cell extracts, cultured cells, and intact animals, but does not cause the toxicity associated with the more stable xenobiotic ligand, TCDD.     

7-ketocholesterol is an endogenous modulator for the arylhydrocarbon receptor

We have identified 7-ketocholesterol (7-KC) as an endogenous modulator that inhibits transactivation by the arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through competitive binding against xenobiotic ligands. 7-KC binds AhR and displaces labeled dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo(p)dioxin (TCDD)). IC(50) is 5 x 10(-7) m in vivo and 7 x 10(-6) m in vitro. These figures are consistent with its concentration in human blood plasma and tissues. Association with 7-KC prevents AhR binding to DNA. 7-KC blocks the TCDD-mediated transactivation of stably expressed reporter gene constructs in T47-D cells as well as the expression of the endogenous CYP 1A1 gene in HepG2 cells and in primary porcine aortic endothelial cells. Injection of 7-KC to rats blocks the induction of CYP 1A1 messenger RNA and protein in endothelial cells from myocardial blood vessels. The differential sensitivity of mammalian species to toxic effects of AhR ligands, especially dioxin (TCDD), correlates with the expression of 7-hydroxycholesterol dehydrogenase, which synthesizes 7-KC from 7-hydroxycholesterol. The documented involvement of AhR ligands in cardiovascular diseases through lipid peroxidation and endothelium dysfunction can now be examined in the context of displacement of this protective modulator.     

Comparative induction of CYP1A1 expression by pyridine and its metabolites

We compared pyridine and five of its metabolites in terms of (i) in vivo induction of CYP1A1 expression in the lung, kidney, and liver in the rat and (ii) in vitro binding to, and activation of, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in cytosol from rat liver or Hepa1c1c7 cells. Following a single 2.5 mmol/kg ip dose of either pyridine, 2-hydroxpyridine, 3-hydroxypyridine, 4-hydroxypyridine, N-methylpyridinium, or pyridine N-oxide, CYP1A1 activity (ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase), protein level (as determined by Western blotting), and mRNA level (as determined by Northern blotting) were induced by pyridine, N-methylpyridinium, and pyridine N-oxide in the lung, kidney, and liver. The induction by N-methylpyridinium or pyridine N-oxide was comparable to or greater than that by pyridine in some tissues. 2-Hydroxypyridine and 3-hydroxypyridine caused tissue-specific induction or repression of CYP1A1, whereas 4-hydroxypyridine had no effect on the expression of the enzyme. Pyridine and its metabolites elicited weak activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in a gel retardation assay in cytosol from rat liver but not Hepa 1c1c7 cells. However, the receptor activation did not parallel the in vivo CYP1A1 induction by the pyridine compounds, none of which inhibited binding of ?(3)H2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin to AhR in a competitive assay in rat liver cytosol. The findings are consistent with a role of pyridine metabolites in CYP1A1 induction by pyridine but do not clearly identify the role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the induction mechanism.     

Preferential inducibility of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 by TCDD: differential regulation in primary human hepatocytes versus transformed human cells

Cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) induction, a marker of aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor activation, has been associated with carcinogenicity of the environmental agent 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Consistently, we show that TCDD treatment led to induction of CYP1A1 in responsive human cancer cell lines including HepG2, LS174T, and MCF-7, as determined by Western blotting and CYP1A form-selective R-warfarin 6- and 8-hydroxylation. TCDD, however, preferably induced CYP1A2, not CYP1A1, in primary human hepatocytes. Such CYP1A form-preferred induction at the protein level was apparently uncorrelated with non-preferred mRNA induction in any cells studied. Moreover, while both genes were up-regulated by TCDD in primary hepatocytes and HepG2 cells, the induction of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 at the mRNA level was distinguishable, indicated by the marked differences in activation kinetics and the response to the protein synthesis inhibitors, anisomycin and cycloheximide. Furthermore, formation of total benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)-DNA adducts was not altered following BaP exposure in TCDD-treated primary hepatocytes, whereas significantly elevated, in a CYP1A1-dependent manner, in the treated HepG2 cells. Taken together, our findings, demonstrating the complexities of TCDD-associated human Ah receptor function and differential regulations of CYP 1A enzymes, suggest clearly the need for caution when extrapolating data obtained in cell-based models.     

Biochemical and molecular biological analysis of different responses to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in chick embryo heart and liver

We studied the mechanism of toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the chick embryo, which is an organism highly sensitive to TCDD. TCDD was injected into egg yolks prior to embryogenesis, and eggs were incubated for 12 or 18 days. In TCDD-exposed embryos, we observed increased heart wet weight and change in the color of the liver, with abnormal fatty vesicle formation. To determine whether these effects were mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), we examined expression levels of AhR, CYP1A4, and CYP1A5. AhR was expressed continuously in the heart and liver during embryogenesis, whereas induction of CYP1A4 and CYP1A5 by TCDD was detected only in the liver. In situ hybridization study of tissue sections revealed induction of CYP1A4 in the abnormal liver tissue in which color change was not observed. To determine whether these different responses to TCDD depended on the cell type, primary cultures of chick hepatocytes and cardiac myocytes were established and 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was measured. Induction of EROD activity following exposure to TCDD was detected in hepatocytes but not in cardiac myocytes. Although the heart is a principal target organ for TCDD toxicity and AhR is expressed throughout embryogenesis, induction of CYP1A was not observed in the chick heart. Thus, we conclude that defects in the heart induced by exposure to TCDD occur via a different pathway than that occurring in the liver.     

2,3,7,8 Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induction of cytochrome P4501A in cultured rat and human hepatocytes

We report here a novel observation that 2,3,7,8-tetracholorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induced predominantly cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) in rat hepatocytes and predominantly CYP1A2 in human hepatocytes. As part of our research program to evaluate species-differences in response to CYP inducers, we studied the effects of TCDD on CYP1A activity, protein, and gene expression in primary cultures of rat and human hepatocytes. TCDD was found to induce CYP1A activity, measured as ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity, in both rat and human hepatocytes. TCDD induction of EROD activity in human hepatocytes (2-5 fold of concurrent solvent control), was significantly lower than that found in rat hepatocytes ( 20-fold of concurrent solvent control). Two structural analogs of TCDD, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TCDF) and 6-nitro-1,3,8-trichlorodibenzofuran (6-NCDF), were also evaluated. As observed for TCDD, human hepatocytes consistently showed a lower response than rat hepatocytes. As most TCDD-related effects are believed to be mediated via binding of the TCDD-Ah receptor (AhR) complex to DNA, nuclear AhR levels were measured in rat and human hepatocytes after TCDD treatment. We found that the nuclear AhR levels in TCDD-treated rat hepatocytes were approximately 4 times higher than found in TCDD-treated human hepatocytes. However, the estimated binding affinity of [3H]TCDD to nuclear AhR from rat hepatocytes was similar. The species difference in response to TCDD was further evaluated by analysis of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mRNA levels using Northern analysis, and P4501A1 and 1A2 protein levels using Western immunoblotting. Results showed that, at both gene expression and protein levels, TCDD induced predominantly CYP1A1 in rat hepatocytes and CYP1A2 in human hepatocytes.