Response of Tabanidae (Diptera) to different natural attractants.

The response of female tabanids to natural attractants was studied in the Monjoros Forest along the Nature Park Kopacki rit in eastern Croatia. Tabanids were caught in canopy traps baited with either aged cow, horse, sheep, or pig urine and also in unbaited traps. Tabanids were collected in a significantly higher numbers in traps baited with natural attractants compared to unbaited traps. The number of females of Tabanus bromius, Tabanus maculicornis, Tabanus tergestinus, and Hybomitra bimaculata collected from canopy traps baited with cow urine and traps baited with other natural attractants differed significantly. Females of Haematopota pluvialis were also collected more frequently in canopy traps baited with aged cow urine than in those with aged horse urine, but this difference was not significant. However, the number of females of Haematopota pluvialis collected from canopy traps baited with other natural attractants (sheep and pig urine) differed significantly when compared with aged cow urine baited traps. Canopy traps baited with aged cow urine collected significantly more Tabanus sudeticus than did traps baited with aged pig urine. Finally, the aged cow urine baited canopy traps collected 51 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, while aged horse, aged sheep, and aged pig urine baited traps collected 36, 30, and 22 times as many tabanids, respectively, than unbaited traps.     

Responses of Tabanidae (Diptera) to canopy traps baited with 4-methylphenol, 3-isopropylphenol, and naphthalene.

The attraction of female tabanids to unbaited and single-baited canopy traps using 4-methylphenol, 3-isopropylphenol, and naphthalene was studied in three forest localities in eastern Croatia. Tabanids were collected in a significantly higher number in traps baited with these chemicals compared to unbaited control traps. The number of females of Tabanus bromius, Tabanus sudeticus, Tabanus tergestinus, Hybomitra ciureai, Haematopota pluvialis, and Tabanus maculicornis collected from 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps and traps baited with other attractants differed significantly. A total of 89.0% of tabanids collected belonged to these six species. The response of the other species to used chemicals was not analyzed because of small sample sizes. Moreover, the results with 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene are very similar and not significant for some tabanids. Tabanus bromius was the most abundant species with 48.4% in the sample collected by canopy traps. Finally, the 4-methylphenol baited canopy traps collected 16 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, while 3-isopropylphenol and naphthalene baited traps collected 3.5 and 2 times as many tabanids, respectively, than unbaited traps. Also, 4-methylphenol appeared to be a very effective attractant for Lucilia caesar (Calliphoridae), Sarcophaga carnaria (Sarcophagidae), and Musca domestica (Muscidae).     

Comparison of sampling tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) by four different potential attractants

Synthetic and natural attractants in traps are used in many parts of the world to attract female tabanids. Certain attractants in different geographic regions may be ineffective or effective under different environmental conditions for horseflies. One‐octen‐3‐ol, as a compound present in bovine emanations, has a behavioural effect on many horsefly species and together with other phenolic compounds makes very effective attractant for this group of insects. As the attractiveness of the mixture of three chemicals (1‐octen‐3‐ol, acetone and ammonia solution in the proportions 5 : 3 : 2), aged donkey urine, lactic acid and fresh human urine is not yet known, it was studied in Eastern Croatia. The combination of those three chemicals and efficiency of natural attractants offers promising results. Tabanus was the most represented genus with 83% of the total collected tabanids. The chi‐squared analyses of the trapping data for canopy traps revealed that each of the attractants (mixture of three chemicals, aged donkey urine, lactic acid and fresh human urine) significantly increased the number of collected horseflies in comparison to those collected in unbaited canopy traps. Some species differences in relative response to different attractants were noted. Significantly, more specimens of Haematopota pluvialis were collected from canopy traps baited with the mixture of three chemicals when compared with traps baited with other attractants. Canopy traps baited with aged donkey urine collected significantly more Atylotus loewianus females than did traps baited with the mixture. The F‐test analysis of the trapping data for the genus Tabanus showed that there is significant difference between average number of collected specimens between mixture of three chemicals and other used attractants (lactic acid and human urine) except aged donkey urine. Finally, traps baited with the mixture of three chemicals (1‐octen‐3‐ol, acetone and ammonia solution) collected 14.5 times more tabanids than unbaited traps, whereas aged donkey urine, lactic acid, and fresh human urine‐baited traps collected 12, 3.9 and 2.5 times as many tabanids, respectively, than did unbaited traps. The mixture of three chemicals (1‐octen‐3‐ol, acetone and ammonia solution) and aged donkey urine appear to be very effective attractants for tabanids.     

Seasonal abundance of horse flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) from two locations in eastern Croatia.

A total of 10,539 tabanid horse flies from 22 species and five genera was collected in the Tikves forest within the Kopacki rit Nature Park in eastern Croatia. Seasonal abundance was analyzed for the six most abundant species. Tabanus maculicornis, Tabanus tergestinus, and Haematopota pluvialis reached their highest peak abundance in the fourth week of June. Atylotus loewianus and Tabanus bromius reached their highest peak of abundance in the first week of August, whereas Tabanus sudeticus reached its maximum abundance in the third week of July. Horse flies also were collected once a week on the pasture at Petrijevci from mid-May to mid-September during 1993. Paired collections were made from a Malaise trap and from a horse by using a sweep net. A total of 2,867 tabanids belonging to 26 species was collected. The number of tabanids collected on horses was much higher than the total captured with Malaise traps. On their natural host (horse), 2.6 times more tabanids were collected than in the traps. Seasonal abundance was analyzed only for the eight most abundant species. Chrysops paralellogrammus, Tabanus autumnalis, Tabanus bromius, Tabanus tergestinus, Haematopota pluvialis, and Haematopota subcylindrica all reached their highest peak of abundance in the second week of July, whereas Tabanus maculicornis reached the maximal peak of abundance in the third week of June. Seasonal meteorological variability that occurs periodically from one year to another has a significant influence on the maximal peaks of tabanid abundance.     

The response of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: culicidae) to traps baited with carbon dioxide, 1-octen-3-ol, acetone, butyric acid and human foot odour in Tanzania

The responses of Culex quinquefasciatus Say to traps baited with carbon dioxide, 1-octen-3-ol, acetone, butyric acid and human foot odour were studied in the field in Muheza, north-east Tanzania using Counterflow Geometry (CFG) and Centers for Disease Control (CDC) traps. It was found that significantly more C. quinquefasciatus responded to foot odour collected on nylon stockings than to clean nylon stockings (P < 0.05). Significantly more mosquitoes were caught in a CFG trap baited with carbon dioxide than in traps with either human foot odour, acetone or butyric acid. It was also found that in an outdoor situation a carbon dioxide baited CDC unlit trap collected over 12 times more C. quinquefasciatus than an unbaited CDC unlit trap and nine times more mosquitoes than CDC traps baited with 1-octen-3-ol alone (P < 0.05). The number of mosquitoes caught in a CDC trap baited with 1-octen-3-ol did not differ significantly from that of the unbaited CDC trap (P > 0.05). These results indicate that the Afrotropical C. quinquefasciatus respond significantly better to traps baited with carbon dioxide than to either octenol, acetone or butyric acid, and that human foot odour contains stimuli to which C. quinquefasciatus is attracted under field conditions.     

Tsetse and other biting fly responses to Nzi traps baited with octenol, phenols and acetone

Octenol (1-octen-3-ol), acetone, 4-methylphenol, 3-n-propylphenol, and other potential attractants (human urine, stable fly faeces), as well as guiacol, creosol (potential repellents), were tested as baits for biting flies in North America using standard phthalogen blue IF3GM cotton Nzi traps, or similar commercial polyester traps. Baits were tested during the summers of 2001-04 at a residence in Canada and during January-August 2001 at a dairy in the U.S.A. Behaviour in the presence of octenol was also studied by intercepting flies approaching a trap through the use of transparent adhesive film. Analogous bait and/or trap comparisons were conducted in natural settings in June 1996 in Kenya and in September-December 1997 in Ethiopia. In Canada, catches of five of six common tabanids (Tabanus similis Macquart, Tabanus quinquevittatus Wiedemann, Hybomitra lasiophthalma [Macquart], Chrysops univittatus Macquart, Chrysops aberrans Philip) and the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans L. were increased significantly by 1.2-2.1 times with octenol (1.5 mg/h). Catches of T. quinquevittatus and S. calcitrans were 3.5-3.6 times higher on a sticky enclosure surrounding a trap baited with octenol. No other baits or bait combinations had an effect on trap catches in North America. In Ethiopia, standard Nzi traps baited with a combination of acetone, octenol and cattle urine caught 1.8-9.9 times as many Stomoxys as similarly baited epsilon, pyramidal, NG2G, S3, biconical and canopy traps, in order of decreasing catch. When baits were compared, catches in Nzi traps of six stable fly species, including S. calcitrans, were not affected by octenol (released at approximately 1 mg/h), or cattle urine (140 mg/h), used alone or in combination with acetone (890 mg/h). Acetone alone, however, significantly increased the catches of common Stomoxys such as Stomoxys niger niger Macquart, Stomoxys taeniatus Bigot, and S. calcitrans by 2.4, 1.6 and 1.9 times, respectively. Catches of Glossina pallidipes Austen were increased significantly in traps baited with acetone, urine or octenol, or any combination, relative to those in unbaited traps (1.4-3.6x). Catches of Glossina morsitans submorsitans Newstead were increased significantly by 1.5-1.7 times, but only when baits were used individually. Unlike other studies with East African tsetse, catches of both tsetse species with the complete bait combination (acetone, urine and octenol) did not differ from those in unbaited traps. Experiments with an incomplete ring of electric nets surrounding a Nzi trap, and a new approach using a sticky enclosure made from transparent adhesive film, revealed diverse responses to artificial objects and baits among biting flies. In Kenya, daily trap efficiency estimates for traps baited with either carbon dioxide (6 L/min) or a combination of acetone, cattle urine and octenol were 21-27% for G. pallidipes, 7-36% for Glossina longipennis Corti, 27-33% for S. n. niger, and 19-33% for Stomoxys niger bilineatus Grünberg, assuming 100% electrocution efficiency. Actual trap efficiencies may have been lower, given observed outside : inside electric net catch ratios of 0.6 : 1.6. Observed ratios averaged 54% of expected values, with 10 of 15 possible ratios less than the minimum possible value of 1.0.     

Effect of host odours on trap catch composition of Glossina pallidipes in Kenya

The effect of odour attractants on the composition of samples of Glossina pallidipes Austen was investigated by comparing the age and nutritional status of flies caught in unbaited biconical traps with those caught in traps baited with cow urine and acetone. For both male and female flies, baited traps caught more flies with significantly higher fat content than did unbaited traps. Thus the samples from baited traps were more representative of the population as a whole: males showed a fuller range of the fat/haematin conditions known to occur in the field and proportionately more females were in later stages of the pregnancy cycle, than from unbaited traps.     

Use of odour-baited sticky boards to trap tabanid flies and investigate repellents

Tabanid flies were captured in a sheep pasture in Hungary using black plastic boards (30 × 30 cm), coated with an adhesive sheet, which were either unbaited or baited with ethane-ethiol or Swormlure-4. Five species of tabanid were caught, of which Tabanus tergestinus was caught in the greatest number (87% of 192). The sex ratio of T. tergestinus on unbaited boards was not statistically significantly different to equality. However, on baited boards, males were significantly more numerous, probably due to a repellent effect of the odours on female tabanids. Because of the importance of repellents in tabanid control, this result encourages the exploration of a wider range of compounds as tabanid repellents than are used at present. Sticky boards offer a simple technique for trapping both sexes of tabanids, especially males, which are poorly represented in many tabanid traps.     

Olfactory and behavioural responses of tabanid horseflies to octenol,phenols and aged horse urine

Electrophysiological and behavioural responses of females of two tabanid species, Tabanus bromius L. and Atylotus quadrifarius (Loew) (Diptera: Tabanidae), to ammonia, octenol (1‐octen‐3‐ol), phenols and aged horse urine were compared. Electroantennogram (EAG) responses in both species to octenol, 4‐methylphenol (4MP), 3‐propylphenol (3PP) and a phenol mixture (4MP and 3PP at a ratio of 16 : 1) increased in a dose‐dependent fashion. The most effective stimulus was 4MP and synergism between the two phenols may exist. Aged horse urine also elicited strong EAG responses in both species. Using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) analysis, we identified 29 compounds in horse urine, which included, in particular, ketones, fatty alcohols and phenols, among which 4MP was the most abundant component (? 80%). Trapping experiments were carried out using Nzi traps baited with various odours. Octenol and the phenol mixture in combination with ammonia increased catches of tabanids by 1.8–2.8 times relative to ammonia alone. Aged horse urine increased catches of T. bromius and A. quadrifarius by 2.2 and 4.1 times, respectively. The high attractiveness of aged horse urine, especially for A. quadrifarius, is not likely to derive from 4MP alone, but from the mixture of various active compounds used in host location.     

Efficacy of mosquito attractants in various habitats of a floodplain

Efficacy of different mosquito attractants was invesigated at four sites in three plant communities (Galio-Salicetum albae, Populetum nigro-albae, Genisto elatae-Quercetum roboris) of flooded and forest habitats in Kopački rit Nature Park, Croatia. The attractants were: dry ice, horse urine, horse urine + acetone, acetone, 1-octen-3-ol and ammonium hydroxide baited CDC traps. A total of 11,441 mosquito specimens of 12 species were collected. Aedes vexans (91.43%) was the most numerous species. A statistically significant difference between the efficacy of dry ice and the other attractants was shown, whereas there was no difference between the other attractants. A greater number of specimens and species number were noted in the flooded plant communities (Populetum nigro-albae). The response of Ae. vexans to dry ice was higher in flooded sites, and it was significantly lower in forest habitat (Genisto elatae-Quercetum roboris) according to fuzzy c-means cluster analysis. The same analysis shows a higher efficacy of other attractants (horse urine, horse urine + acetone, acetone, octenol and ammonium hydroxide) in forest habitat when compared to the flooded area habitats.     

Responses of tabanids to Nzi traps baited with octenol,cow urine and phenols in Canada

Cow urine and the two phenols responsible for the attraction of biting flies to cow urine (4‐methylphenol, 3‐n‐propylphenol) were compared with octenol (1‐octen‐3‐ol) as baits for Tabanidae. Relative to an unbaited Nzi trap, catches of the horseflies Hybomitra lasiophthalma (Macquart), Tabanus similis Macquart and Tabanus quinquevittatus Wiedemann (Diptera: Tabanidae) were increased by 1.5–2.6, 1.4–2.0 and 1.4–1.9 times, respectively, whenever a bait included octenol released at either 0.13 mg/h or 1.5 mg/h, regardless of the presence of phenols or urine. Catches were not affected when traps were baited with phenols alone at evaporation rates of 0.38 mg/h (4‐methylphenol) and 0.022 mg/h (3‐n‐propylphenol). Catches of Hybomitra horseflies were increased by 1.5–1.9 times with cow urine and 2.6 times with cow urine + octenol. This bait combination could prove to be particularly useful for Hybomitra horseflies, the common tabanids of northern environments.     

ACTION DE L'ANHYDRIDE CARBONIQUE ET DE FACTEURS VISUELS SUR LES PERFORMANCES DE PIEGES «MANITOBA» MODIFIES EN MILIEU MONTAGNARD

Résumé Les performances de pièges à Tabanidae de type Manitoba ont été étudiées en milieu montagnard et subalpin. On a testé les influences respectives de la présence ou de l'absence d'une source de CO₂, de la nature de cette source (solide ou gazeuse), de la présence ou de l'absence d'un leurre visuel (sphère noir brillant), de la nature transparente ou opaque de la partie supérieure du piège (hotte conique). Plus de 8.000 Tabanidae et plus de 51.000 Muscidae ont été pris au cours de ces essais totalisant 660 heures-pièges.

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Summary Manitoba traps, traps without decoy or with black canopy, unbaited or baited with dry ice or compressed carbon dioxide, were compared for the numbers of horse flies and muscid flies caught in mountainous mixed wood and pasture land and in subalpine larch forest between 1500 m and 2200 m, in July. More muscid flies were captured in the compressed CO₂ baited traps than in dry ice baited traps. Haematopota pluvialis, Tabanus maculicornis and Tabanus quatuornotatus were more attracted by CO₂ than Tabanus bromius. T. bromius was more attracted by the decoy than other species. The genus Atylotus and T. bromius are more attracted to the black canopy than other species. The visual decoy is more necessary to the efficiency of the trap than the chemical bait. The CO₂ baited Manitoba trap caught the greatest number of horse flies (180 per trap and per hour). The unbaited Manitoba trap was efficient too, but other traps were inefficient. About 8000 horse flies and 51000 muscid flies were caught.

     

Field studies on efficacy of host odour baits for the biting midge Culicoides impunctatus in Scotland

The efficacy of some putative attractants for the biting midge Culicoides impunctatus (Goetghebuer) (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) was assessed using odour-baited 'delta traps' and suction traps. 1-octen-3-ol was confirmed as a potent olfactory attractant for C. impunctatus when released at 0.06mg/h. Acetone (23mg/h) and a mix of six phenolic compounds (phenol, 3-ethylphenol, 4-ethylphenol, 3-methylphenol, 4-methylphenol and 4-propylphenol), at undetermined release rate, also significantly increased delta trap catches compared to unbaited controls. When tested in combination, there was evidence of synergism between CO2 (0.2L/min) and acetone, 1-octen-3-ol or cow urine, trap catches being, respectively, 4.7, 6.2 and 9.3-fold greater than for CO2 alone. Highest catches were obtained with triple bait combinations comprising cow urine + acetone + CO2 or cow urine + 1-octen-3-ol+CO2, which increased trap catches by X 22 and X 24, respectively, compared to CO2 alone. Culicoides impunctatus was found to be extremely sensitive to CO2 and responses, gauged over two field seasons, showed a significant dose-dependent increase in catch across the entire range of release rates (0.2-2.5 L/min). Responses to these release rates, ranging from small to large mammal equivalents, emphasized the important role of CO2 in host location by C. impunctatus. Uses of olfactory attractants for monitoring and control of Culicoides are reviewed on the basis of these results.     

Synergism between ammonia and phenols for Hybomitra tabanids in northern and temperate Canada

Baits for tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) were tested in the Northwest Territories (60 °N) and Ontario (45 °N) using Nzi traps. Tests targeted ammonia, phenols/cow urine and octenol. About 200 000 tabanids were captured in 15 experiments with a maximum capture of 4182 in one trap in 1 day. In the Northwest Territories, phenols, urine and octenol were effective single baits for only some species. At both locations, adding ammonia to an unbaited or an octenol-baited trap had no effect on catches. By contrast, catches were increased for several species when ammonia was combined with phenols or urine. In Ontario, including ammonia in various baits increased catches by 1.5- to 3.4-fold relative to octenol alone for three Hybomitra and one Tabanus species. Synergism between ammonia and phenols was clearly demonstrated for the dominant Hybomitra species in Ontario (Hybomitra lasiophthalma), but not for the dominant species in the Northwest Territories (Hybomitra epistates). In five other northern Hybomitra species, baits of ammonia and/or octenol in combination with phenols resulted in a 1.7- to 4.1-fold increase in catch relative to an unbaited trap. Further tests of ammonia as a synergist for biting flies may prove useful in, for example, tsetse, which respond strongly to phenols.     

Performance of painted plywood and cloth Nzi traps relative to Manitoba and greenhead traps for tabanids and stable flies

Experiments were conducted to adapt the cloth Nzi trap to a format suitable for fixed applications in biting fly sampling or control. Catches of tabanids [Tabanus L., Chrysops (Meigen), and Hybomitra Enderlein], and stable flies [Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)] in painted plywood traps were compared with those in standard phthalogen blue cloth traps, and in similarly painted cloth traps. The Manitoba horse fly trap and the Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart "greenhead" box trap were used as additional standards during one tabanid season. Shiny features of traps reduced catches, e.g., paint on cloth instead of wood, or use of aluminum screening instead of netting. Nevertheless, appropriately painted plywood Nzi traps caught as many biting flies as did standard cloth Nzi traps, if paint finishes were matte, and with the use of phthalogen blue colorants. Nzi traps collected about the same tabanid fauna as the Manitoba and T. nigrovittatus traps, but with improved catches of Chrysops and Tabanus. Recommendations are provided on appropriate color matching, and selection of readily-available materials for trap construction.     

Behavioural and electrophysiological responses of females of two species of tabanid to volatiles in urine of different mammals

Urine volatiles from different ungulates (cows, horses and sheep) were tested as bait for tabanids in southeastern France using Nzi traps during the early summer of 2011. Tabanus bromius Linnaeus, 1758 and Atylotus quadrifarius (Loew, 1874) (both: Diptera: Tabanidae) were the most captured species, respectively representing 57% and 41% of all tabanids collected (all of which were female). Horse urine significantly increased catches of T. bromius (1.6‐fold) and A. quadrifarius (3.5‐fold), and sheep urine significantly increased catches of A. quadrifarius (2.5‐fold). In parallel, an electroantennogram (EAG) study was conducted for the first time on these two species, in which EAGs were recorded using 1‐octen‐3‐ol and extracts of the same urine samples used in the field. For T. bromius, the EAG response to 1‐octen‐3‐ol increased quasi‐sigmoidally with dose, with a maximum response at ≥100 µg on filter paper. For both species of tabanid, cow and horse urine elicited larger EAGs than did sheep urine. The behavioural implications in host‐seeking and feeding habits are discussed.     

An effective strategy for trapping Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Col., Scolytidae) using combinations of unbaited and pheromone baited funnel traps

Experiments were conducted to confirm and quantify earlier observations that unbaited funnel traps in conjunction with pheromone baited funnel traps may substantially increase trap catches of Douglas-fir beetles, Dendroctonus pseudotsugae . In 12 replicates of one of these experiments during 1998 and 1999, the catches of a single baited control trap were compared to those of a set of four traps where the central trap was baited and a ring of three traps, 1 m from the central trap arranged in a star configuration, were unbaited. In the second experiment conducted during 1999, a ring of three unbaited traps was placed at 2 m and a second at 5 m from the central baited trap. Statistically robust results demonstrated clearly that the configuration of one central baited trap plus three unbaited satellite traps collected twice as many beetles on average over the season compared to the baited control trap. Addition of a second ring of unbaited traps increased collections by only about 20%, but this experiment indicated that trap catches dropped off exponentially with distance from the centre. The number of beetles caught in the baited traps was essentially the same in all 3 arrangements, suggesting that the additional unbaited traps captured beetles that otherwise may not have been captured.     

Comparison of male and female emerald ash borer (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) responses to phoebe oil and (Z)-3-hexenol lures in light green prism traps

We conducted trapping experiments for the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in Michigan, U.S.A., and Ontario, Canada, to compare unbaited light green sticky prism traps with traps baited with phoebe oil, (Z)-3-hexenol (Z3-6:OH), or blends of other green leaf volatiles (GLVs) with Z3-6:OH. Traps were placed in the lower canopy of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.). Catches with Z3-6:OH-baited traps showed a significant male bias and these traps caught significantly more males than the unbaited controls at both sites. They were also superior to phoebe oil-baited traps and those baited with GLV blends. Catches with phoebe oil showed a significant female bias but there was no difference in the number of females captured between traps baited with phoebe oil or Z3-6:OH lures. Catches were analyzed at regular time intervals to examine the response of A. planipennis to the lures over the course of the flight season. Z3-6:OH-baited traps consistently caught more males than the controls at each interval throughout the flight season. Catches of females with Z3-6:OH and phoebe oil were significantly better than the controls early in the flight season but declined to control levels by midseason. Our results suggest that Z3-6:OH-baited green traps placed in the ash canopy would be a superior lure for detecting and monitoring A. planipennis throughout the flight season.     

Laboratory and field testing of bednet traps for mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) sampling in West Java,Indonesia

Surveillance of medically important mosquitoes is critical to determine the risk of mosquito‐borne disease transmission. The purpose of this research was to test self‐supporting, exposure‐free bednet traps to survey mosquitoes. In the laboratory we tested human‐baited and unbaited CDC light trap/cot bednet (CDCBN) combinations against three types of traps: the Mbita Trap (MIBITA), a Tent Trap (TENT), and a modified Townes style Malaise trap (TSM). In the laboratory, 16 runs comparing MBITA, TSM, and TENT to the CDCBN were conducted for a total of 48 runs of the experiment using 13,600 mosquitoes. The TENT trap collected significantly more mosquitoes than the CDCBN. The CDCBN collected significantly more than the MBITA and there was no difference between the TSM and the CDCBN. Two field trials were conducted in Cibuntu, Sukabumi, West Java, Indonesia. The first test compared human‐baited and unbaited CDCBN, TENT, and TSM traps during six nights over two consecutive weeks per month from January, 2007 to September, 2007 for a total of 54 trapnights. A total of 8,474 mosquitoes representing 33 species were collected using the six trapping methods. The TENT‐baited trap collected significantly more mosquitoes than both the CDCBN and the TSM. The second field trial was a comparison of the baited and unbaited TENT and CDCBN traps and Human Landing Collections (HLCs). The trial was carried out from January, 2008 to May, 2008 for a total of 30 trap nights. A total of 11,923 mosquitoes were collected representing 24 species. Human Landing Collections captured significantly more mosquitoes than either the TENT or the CDCBN. The baited and unbaited TENT collected significantly more mosquitoes than the CDCBN. The TENT trap was found to be an effective, light‐weight substitute for the CDC light‐trap, bednet combination in the field and should be considered for use in surveys of mosquito‐borne diseases such as malaria, arboviruses, and filariasis.     

The response of tsetse flies to artificial baits in relation to age, nutritional and reproductive state

In various vegetation types in Zimbabwe, the catches of Glossina pallidipes Austen and G. morsitans morsitans Westw. (Diptera: Glossinidae) at a target baited with odour (acetone, 1-octen-3-ol and two phenols) were positively correlated with catches of the same species at an unbaited net. No correlation existed between target catches and hand net catches of tsetse flies sitting on the vegetation. G. pallidipes females caught at a target and at an unbaited net were older than those caught from vegetation. Of the female G. pallidipes caught at the target, 46% were in the first 3 days of pregnancy. Of those caught at the unbaited net, significantly fewer, 21%, were in this stage. G. pallidipes males caught from vegetation contained more fat (3.07±0.333 mg) than those caught at the unbaited net (2.06±0.339 mg) or at the target (2.19±0.218 mg). It is inferred that target catches consisted predominantly of tsetse which were already in flight when they sensed the stimuli from the target, and that target catches were biased towards female G. pallidipes in the first 3 days of pregnancy.