全球森林土壤微生物生物量碳氮磷化学计量的季节动态

土壤微生物生物量在森林生态系统中充当具有生物活性的养分积累和储存库。土壤微生物转化有机质为植物提供可利用养分, 与植物的相互作用维系着陆地生态系统的生态功能。同时, 土壤微生物也与植物争夺营养元素, 在季节交替过程和植物的生长周期中呈现出复杂的互利-竞争关系。综合全球数据对温带、亚热带和热带森林土壤微生物生物量碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)含量及其化学计量比值的季节动态进行分析, 发现温带和亚热带森林的土壤微生物生物量C、N、P含量均呈现夏季低、冬季高的格局。热带森林四季的土壤微生物生物量C、N、P含量都低于温带和亚热带森林, 且热带森林土壤微生物生物量C含量、N含量在秋季相对最低, 土壤微生物生物量P含量四季都相对恒定。温带森林的土壤微生物生物量C:N在春季显著高于其他两个森林类型; 热带森林的土壤微生物生物量C:N在秋季显著高于其他2个森林类型。温带森林土壤微生物生物量N:P和C:P在四季都保持相对恒定, 而热带森林土壤微生物生物量N:P和C:P在夏季高于其他3个季节。阔叶树的土壤微生物生物量C含量、N含量、N:P、C:P在四季都显著高于针叶树; 而针叶树的土壤微生物生物量P含量在四季都显著高于阔叶树。在春季和冬季时, 土壤微生物生物量C:N在阔叶树和针叶树之间都没有显著差异; 但是在夏季和秋季, 针叶树的土壤微生物生物量C:N显著高于阔叶树。对于土壤微生物生物量的变化来说, 森林类型是主要的显著影响因子, 季节不是显著影响因子, 暗示土壤微生物生物量的季节波动是随着植物其内在固有的周期变化而变化。植物和土壤微生物密切作用表现出来的对养分的不同步吸收是保留养分和维持生态功能的一种权衡机制。     

高原鼠兔肠道微生物中丰富及稀有类群的季节性特征

气候及食物是驱动植食性小哺乳动物肠道菌群产生季节性变化的重要因素。然而,此类研究很少涉及肠道丰富及稀有微生物类群。本文以高原鼠兔（Ochotona curzoniae）为对象,通过16S rRNA基因测序和分析,探讨丰富及稀有肠道微生物类群的结构组成、多样性指数及功能在春、夏、秋、冬四季的变化特征。结果显示,丰富类群对菌群主要门和功能的季节性变异贡献大于稀有类群,稀有类群对菌群OTU和alpha多样性的变异贡献大于丰富类群。丰富类群和稀有类群的香农指数均在冬季显著高于其他季节;丰富类群的ACE指数在秋季显著低于其他季节,而稀有类群的ACE指数则在冬季显著高于春季和夏季。丰富类群中拟杆菌门（Bacteroidetes）的相对丰度在冬季和秋季显著高于春季和夏季,但在稀有类群中,夏季和秋季的相对丰度显著高于冬季和春季。丰富类群中氨基酸代谢通路的相对丰度在冬季显著高于春季和夏季,而在稀有类群中,其相对丰度在春季显著高于夏季和秋季。气温、降水量和植被中的营养物质与肠道菌群中丰富类群和稀有类群的变化均显著相关,环境变量对丰富类群和稀有类群变化的总解释率分别为18%（气温：3%;降水：4%;植被营养成分：10%;联合：1%）和9%（气温：1%;降水：2%;植被营养成分：5%;联合：1%）。以上结果表明肠道微生物中的丰富和稀有类群具有不同的分布模式和季节性特征,二者对整体菌群变异的贡献存在差异,环境因素更多地影响丰富类群,反映了肠道微生物不同类群对季节变化响应的非一致性。本研究增进了我们对哺乳动物肠道菌群季节性变化过程及环境适应性的认识。     

Spatial and seasonal changes of dissolved and particulate organic C in the North Sea

Sampling of the central region of the North Sea was carried out to study the spatial and seasonal changes of dissolved and particulate organic C (DOC and POC, respectively). The surface waters were collected during four cruises over a year (Autumn 2004–Summer 2005). DOC and POC concentrations were measured using high temperature catalytic oxidation methods. The surface water concentrations of DOC and POC were spatially and temporally variable. There were significantly different concentrations of DOC and POC between the inshore and offshore waters in winter and summer only, with no clear trend in autumn and spring. Highest mean concentrations of DOC were measured in spring with lower and similar mean concentrations for other seasons. POC showed a clear seasonal cycle throughout the year with highest surface mean concentrations found in autumn and spring, but lowest in winter and summer. The DOC distributions during autumn and spring were strongly correlated with chlorophyll suggesting extracellular release from phytoplankton was an important DOC source during these two seasons. The lower concentrations of DOC in summer were probably due to the heterotrophic uptake of labile DOC. The seasonal changes in the C:N molar ratios of surface DOM (dissolved organic matter) resulted in higher mean C:N molar ratios in spring and lower ratios in winter. These high ratios may indicate nutrient limitation of heterotrophic uptake immediately after the spring bloom. There is limited data available for DOC cycling in these productive shelf seas and these results show that DOC is a major component of the C cycle with partial decoupling of the DOC and DON cycling in the central North Sea during the spring bloom. Handling editor: Luigi Naselli-Flores     

Seasonality,Rather than Nutrient Addition or Vegetation Types,Influenced Short-Term Temperature Sensitivity of Soil Organic Carbon Decomposition

The response of microbial respiration from soil organic carbon (SOC) decomposition to environmental changes plays a key role in predicting future trends of atmospheric CO₂ concentration. However, it remains uncertain whether there is a universal trend in the response of microbial respiration to increased temperature and nutrient addition among different vegetation types. In this study, soils were sampled in spring, summer, autumn and winter from five dominant vegetation types, including pine, larch and birch forest, shrubland, and grassland, in the Saihanba area of northern China. Soil samples from each season were incubated at 1, 10, and 20°C for 5 to 7 days. Nitrogen (N; 0.035 mM as NH₄NO₃) and phosphorus (P; 0.03 mM as P₂O₅) were added to soil samples, and the responses of soil microbial respiration to increased temperature and nutrient addition were determined. We found a universal trend that soil microbial respiration increased with increased temperature regardless of sampling season or vegetation type. The temperature sensitivity (indicated by Q₁₀, the increase in respiration rate with a 10°C increase in temperature) of microbial respiration was higher in spring and autumn than in summer and winter, irrespective of vegetation type. The Q₁₀ was significantly positively correlated with microbial biomass and the fungal: bacterial ratio. Microbial respiration (or Q₁₀) did not significantly respond to N or P addition. Our results suggest that short-term nutrient input might not change the SOC decomposition rate or its temperature sensitivity, whereas increased temperature might significantly enhance SOC decomposition in spring and autumn, compared with winter and summer.     

Effect of season on peripheral resistance to localised cold stress

This study was carried out to determine the effect that seasonal changes have on the effect of localised cold stress on peripheral temperatures using the foot immersion method with a cold water bath. The subjects were six males and four females. The data were obtained in April, July, October and January. Skin temperature of the right index finger, the forehead, the arm, the cheek, the second toe and the instep were measured before, during and after the immersion of the feet in water at 15°C for 10 mins, as well as oxygen consumption before immersion of the feet.The average finger temperature was highest during foot immersion in the summer, next highest in the winter, then spring, and the lowest during foot immersion in the autumn. The finger temperatures during the pre-immersion period in the autumn tended to be lower than in other seasons. The finger temperatures during the pre-immersion period affected the temperature change of the finger during the immersion period. The rate of increase of the toe temperature and the foot temperature during post-immersion in the summer and the spring were greater than those in the autumn and winter. Oxygen consumption during the pre-immersion period in the autumn was significantly lower than in the other seasons (p<0.001 or 0.010). Cooling the feet caused no significant changes in the temperatures the cheek, forehead or forearm. The cheek temperature in the summer and autumn was cooler than corresponding temperatures taken in the winter and spring.     

A Two-Year Surveillance of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) in Guangzhou,China: From Pandemic to Seasonal Influenza?

In this two-years surveillance of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) (pH1N1) in Guangzhou, China, we reported here that the scale and duration of pH1N1 outbreaks, severe disease and fatality rates of pH1N1 patients were significantly lower or shorter in the second epidemic year (May 2010-April 2011) than those in the first epidemic year (May 2009-April 2010) (P<0.05), but similar to those of seasonal influenza (P>0.05). Similar to seasonal influenza, pre-existing chronic pulmonary diseases was a risk factor associated with fatal cases of pH1N1 influenza. Different from seasonal influenza, which occurred in spring/summer seasons annually, pH1N1 influenza mainly occurred in autumn/winter seasons in the first epidemic year, but prolonged to winter/spring season in the second epidemic year. The information suggests a tendency that the epidemics of pH1N1 influenza may probably further shift to spring/summer seasons and become a predominant subtype of seasonal influenza in coming years in Guangzhou, China.     

Seasonal population dynamics of Pallisentis (Neosentis) celatus (Acanthocephala: Quadrigyridae) in the intestine of the rice-field eel Monopterus albus in China

Studies on the seasonal population dynamics of Pallisentis (Neosentis) celatus (Acanthocephala: Quadrigyridae) in the intestine of the rice-field eel Monopterus albus from the paddies and ditches in the Dong-ting Lake basin of China, were carried out with samples taken from June 2002 to May 2003. Prevalences were above 21% in all seasons sampled and with a distinct seasonal trend, which was highest (45.81%) in the spring and decreased by degrees. The mean intensity of infection was above 4.0 worms per fish. The maximum intensity of worms recovered from a single fish was 86 in the autumn of 2002. No significant seasonal differences were found in mean intensities, and differences in the mean abundance between winter and spring, winter and autumn were significant. Over-dispersed distributions of P. (N.) celatus in the host population, due to heterogeneity and feeding habits, were observed in all seasons. The size composition of both sexes of P. (N.) celatus showed males between 2.0 mm and 14.0 mm and females between 2.2 mm and 22.2 mm, with the main recruitment phase in the worm populations occurring in the summer and autumn, especially in the autumn, with the lowest recruitment occurring in the winter. The maturation and copulation of worms were mainly focused in the spring season. The sex ratio of female to male was both high in summer (1.09:1) and autumn (1.08:1). The higher proportion of females and the change in the worm sex ratio in summer can be attributed to the reduced longevity of male worms. As immature male worms exhibit a higher proportion of the worm population than females in all seasons, further studies are needed to determine if such a situation compensates for the shorter life span of males.     

Seasonal variation in haematological parameters in male and female Tinca tinca

This study was designed to investigate any seasonal (spring, summer, autumn and winter) changes in haematological parameters in the blood of Tinca tinca measuring the number of red blood cells (RBC), haematocrit, white blood cells, and total plasma proteins.The results show significant changes in RBC and haematocrit in males comparing spring and summer with autumn and winter, whereas in females the RBC remained constant for all 4 seasons but the haematocrit decreased in autumn and winter compared to spring and summer. The white blood cells of male and female animals were significantly lower in spring and winter compared to summer and autumn. In male fish total protein contents significantly decreased in autumn and winter compared to spring and summer, whereas in females protein output significantly decreased in winter compared to the other seasons. The results indicate marked seasonal variation in the blood of male and female Tinca tinca. This variation may play a important protective role for the survival of the animals.     

Seasonal patterns in feeding ecology of three small fishes in the Biandantang Lake, China

Feeding ecology of three small fish species, Hypseleotris swinhonis, Ctenogobius giurinus and Pseudorasbora parva was studied seasonally in the Biandantang Lake, a small, shallow lake in central China. Gut length, adjusted for total body length, was significantly higher in spring than in other seasons for all the three species. Seasonal changes in gut length were not associated with changes in food quality. Weight of fore-gut contents, adjusted for body weight, was significantly higher in winter and spring than in summer and autumn in H. swinhonis and C. giurinus , and significantly higher in autumn than in spring and summer for P. parva. Percentage of empty fore-guts was highest in summer and lowest in spring for H. swinhonis and C. giurinus , and highest in winter and lowest in autumn for P. parva. Diet of the three small fishes showed apparent seasonal changes, and these changes reflected partly the seasonal fluctuations of food resources in environment. Diet breadth was high in winter and low in autumn for H. swinhonis , high in winter and low in spring and summer for C. giurinus , and high in autumn and low in spring for P. parva. Diet overlaps between pairs of species were biologically significant in most cases, except between H. swinhonis and P. parva in summer and autumn and between C. giurinus and P. parva in autumn.     

基于MODIS卫星火点的浙江省林火季节变化及驱动因子

研究林火变化趋势和驱动因子,可为林火预防和管理提供科学依据。本研究基于MODIS卫星火点数据,结合气象(日平均风速、日平均温度、日相对湿度、气温日较差、日累计降水)、人为(到公路距离、到铁路距离、到居民点距离、人口密度、人均GDP)、地形和植被因素(高程、坡度、植被覆盖度),运用趋势分析法、Logistic回归模型,对浙江省2001—2016年林火变化趋势和驱动因子进行研究。结果表明: 浙江省春、夏季林火呈显著上升趋势,秋、冬季林火呈先上升后下降趋势,秋季下降趋势显著。浙江省各季节林火预测模型拟合度均较高,模型预测准确率分别为75.8%(春季)、79.1%(夏季)、74.7%(秋季)和79.6%(冬季)。浙江省春、夏季林火发生与变化受气象、人为、地形和植被因素的显著影响;秋、冬季林火发生与变化主要受气象因素影响。在影响因素复杂、高火险区域分散的春、夏季,林火管理应重点加强人为活动管理和防火宣传教育;在秋、冬季,可通过在高火险区集中分布的西南地区增设瞭望塔和监控设备进行监测和管理。     

桂北不同林龄桉树人工林土壤微生物数量和酶活性特征研究

为探讨桉树不同林龄土壤微生物活性的响应特征,该研究采用时空互代法,选择广西北部低山丘陵地区1～5年生桉树人工林为研究对象,分析了土壤微生物、酶活性在不同土层和季节的变化规律。结果表明:(1)土壤微生物和酶活性在土层中有明显的垂直分布特征,均随土层加深而趋于降低,且各土层间差异显著。(2)细菌、放线菌数量随季节的大小顺序为秋季>夏季>春季>冬季,真菌的变化规律为春季>夏季>秋季>冬季,而酶活性随季节变化表现为夏季、秋季活性较高,春季、冬季活性较低。(3)细菌、真菌、脲酶、过氧化氢酶随林龄增大表现出先减小后增大的趋势,放线菌则呈现先减小后增大再减小的趋势,而蔗糖酶、酸性磷酸酶随林龄的增大趋于增大。(4)林地土壤中三大类群微生物与四种土壤酶之间存在极显著正相关关系,说明土壤微生物与土壤酶活性相互影响,两者之间关系密切,共同影响土壤的质量。综上可知,不同土层土壤微生物和酶活性的季节响应特征差异较大,总体在冬季最低,主要与气温、水分条件、凋落物养分的归还等有关。不同季节、土层、林龄之间的交互作用对土壤微生物和酶活性有显著影响。     

黑线仓鼠体重和能量代谢的季节性变化

为阐明小型哺乳动物体重和能量代谢的季节性变化以及生理调节机制,将黑线仓鼠驯化于自然环境下12个月,测定其体重、能量收支、身体组织器官和血清瘦素水平的季节性变化。黑线仓鼠能量摄入和支出的季节性变化显著,冬季摄入能、基础代谢率(BMR)、非颤抖性产热(NST)显著高于夏季。体重季节性变化不显著,但身体组织器官重量呈现显著的季节性变化,冬季肝脏、心脏、肾脏以及消化道重量显著高于夏季。体脂含量夏季最高,冬季最低,冬季显著低于夏、秋和春季(P <0.01)。血清瘦素水平的季节性变化显著,夏季瘦素水平比秋、冬季分别高88.2% 和52.4% (P <0.05)。结果表明,黑线仓鼠体重维持季节性稳定,与“调定点假说”的预测不同;但脂肪含量和血清瘦素季节性变化显著,符合该假说。夏季血清瘦素升高具有抑制能量摄入的作用,冬季血清瘦素可能是促进代谢产热的重要因子,瘦素对能量代谢和体重的调节作用与气候的季节性变化有关。       

Microbial dynamics and enzyme activities during rapid composting of municipal solid waste - a compost maturity analysis perspective

An investigation was carried out in the laboratory to find out the microbial dynamics and enzyme activities during rapid composting of municipal solid waste (MSW). Various treatments such as aeration (A), addition of chemical agents (glucose (G) and acetic acid (AA) and application of cellulolytic microbial (M) inoculum (Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trichoderma reesei) were used to facilitate the decomposition of MSW. The result of the present investigation revealed that the degradation of organic substrates were quick (within 9-12 days) in case of rapid composting as indicated by the reduction (below 20) in C/N ratio. Whereas, normal composting took more than 20 days to attain C/N ratio of below 20. Estimation of selected enzymes (amylase, protease, phosphatase and cellulase) provided information on the substrate specific degradation profiles of various labile substrates contained in organic waste.     

Seasonal variations in the immune system of the tench,Tinca tinca (Cyprinidae): proliferative response of lymphocytes induced by mitogens

The proliferation of tench lymphocytes induced by mitogens was studied during the four seasons of the year. Fish were maintained under natural conditions of photoperiod and temperature (mean ± SD: 12±2°C in winter, 22±3°C in spring, 30±3°C in summer and 21±3°C in autumn). Cultures were performed in vitro at 22°C in all seasons and the results were compared. Subsequently, in seasons with extreme water temperatures, cultures in vitro were performed at the same temperature as that of the water (12°C in winter and 30°C in summer) and the results were compared seasonally at the seasonal temperature, i.e. at 22°C in spring, 30°C in summer, 22°C in autumn and 12°C in winter. Phytohemagglutinin, concanavalin A, lipolisaccharide from E. coli and pokeweed mitogen were used as mitogens. Studies performed at 22°C as assay temperature in all seasons showed profound seasonal changes: while in spring, summer and autumn the mitogenic response of lymphocytes to phytohemagglutinin, concanavalin A, lipolisaccharide from E. coli and pokeweed mitogen was very low, during winter the results obtained were significantly higher. However, when the assays were performed at the corresponding seasonal temperature the differences were not as pronounced between the different seasons, and the mitogenic responses of lymphocytes were found to be the lowest during the winter and the highest during the summer with all mitogens used. This fact suggests that immunosuppression occurs in winter and an immunostimulation occurs in summer. However, the higher response found in winter when assaying at 22°C suggests that this property of lymphocytes needs an assay temperature higher than the in vivo temperature in order to observe accurate mitogenic responses.Abbreviations Con A concanavalin A - cpm counts per minute - LPS E. coli lipolisaccharide - MS222 tricainemethane sulphonate - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - PHA phytohemagglutinin - PWM pokeweed mitogen - SI stimulation index     

Seasonal variation in blood concentrations of interleukin-6, adrenocorticotrophic hormone,metabolites of catecholamine and cortisol in healthy volunteers

We investigated seasonal changes in blood concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), metabolites of catecholamine (VMA, HVA, and 5-HIAA) and cortisol in humans. Eight volunteers were investigated at four times during the year (February, May, August and October) at latitude 35° N. The mean ambient temperature at the collection periods was higher in the order of summer > autumn ≈ spring > winter. Changes in mood were also monitored by a profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaire. The concentration of IL-6 was significantly higher in winter and summer than in spring and autumn. The concentrations of ACTH, HVA and VMA were significantly higher in summer. No seasonal variation was detected in cortisol. There were significant differences among the seasons in subscale tension and anger in the POMS questionnaire; the tension subscale showed significant differences between spring and autumn, with a higher score in spring. The results demonstrate that Il-6, ACTH, HVA and VMA exhibit statistically significant seasonal rhythms, which might have important diagnostic and therapeutic implications.     

上海金泽水库典型挺水植物碳、氮、磷化学计量特征的季节变化

为探究不同水生植物碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)含量及其化学计量比随季节的变化特征,本研究以上海金泽水库库区四种典型挺水植物旱伞草(Cyperus alternifolius),芦苇(Phragmites australis),千屈菜(Lythrum salicaria),水葱(Scirpus validus)为例,开展了季节性取样及室内分析,结果显示:(1)四种植物碳氮磷含量的变化规律不同。其中,对于植物碳含量,旱伞草和芦苇均无显著差异,千屈菜和水葱仅在冬季显著降低。对于植物氮含量,除旱伞草外,其他植物均在春季生长初期显著降低,在夏季生长旺盛时期显著升高,而旱伞草四季无显著差异。对于植物磷含量,水葱在四季均无显著差异,芦苇和千屈菜在冬季植物休眠期显著降低,旱伞草和芦苇磷含量在夏季显著降低。(2)四种植物C/N/P的季节性变化特征不同。其中,旱伞草C/N四季间无显著差异,其他3种植物C/N在春季生长初期显著升高;在C/P方面,水葱四季间无显著差异,芦苇和千屈菜在春季显著降低,旱伞草和芦苇C/P在夏季显著升高;常绿植物旱伞草N/P在四季无显著差异,其他3种植物N/P均在冬季生物量低时显著升...     

Sexual size dimorphism, sex ratio and the relationship between seasonality and water quality in four species of Gordiida (Nematomorpha) from Catamarca, Argentina

A total of 687 adult nematomorphs of four species of Gordiida: Chordodes brasiliensis (393 specimens), Noteochorododes cymatium (47 specimens), N. talensis (162 specimens) and Pseudochordodes dugesi (85 specimens) were collected during a period of 1 year from El Simbolar stream, Argentina. Free-living worms were abundant during autumn and spring, but their number decreased during winter and summer. Males were shorter and significantly more abundant than females. The presence of N. cymatium, N. talensis and P. dugesi was correlated with water temperature and these species were most abundant in winter and spring. The presence of C. brasiliensis was correlated with flow rate and pH; this species was more abundant in autumn and winter. These four species are sympatric.     

洞庭湖区社鼠消化道长度和质量的季节变化

对洞庭湖区社鼠（Niviventer confucianus）自然种群四季的消化道各器官的长度和质量进行了测定。结果表明。消化道指标季节变化明显。总体消化道含内容鲜质量、净鲜质量与干质量均具有显著的季节变化。以冬、春季较高。夏、秋季较低。消化道各器官的变化与总消化道不尽相同。其中,以胃的变化相对比较稳定。仅长度的变化达显著水平,以冬季最短,夏、秋季较长。这是动物为适应繁殖季节能量需求而增加摄食量的反应,也与夏秋季食物丰富度有关。小肠、盲肠、大肠的长度和质量指标（内容鲜质量、净鲜质量和干质量）以冬、春季较高。夏、秋季较低。这是该鼠对冬、春季低温和食物匮乏的适应性反应。总体来说。洞庭湖区社鼠为适应夏、秋季繁殖盛期能量需求增加的主要对策是增加摄食量;而为适应冬、春季低温环境和食物数量和质量减少的主要对策是增大消化道。提高消化效率。     

Seasonal population dynamics of Neoechinorhynchus qinghaiensis in the carp, Gymnocypris przewalskii przewalskii, from Qinghai Lake, China

Studies on the seasonal population dynamics of Neoechinorhynchus qinghaiensis (Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae) in its fish host Gymnocypris przewalskii przewalskii in the Qinghai Lake, China, were carried out with samples taken in May 1991, August 1992, November 1992 and February 1993. Prevalences were higher than 44% in all seasons. The mean intensity of infection was above 124 worms per fish. The maximum intensity of worms recovered from a single fish was 1402 in the autumn of 1992. Differences in the mean abundance, mean intensity and prevalence are not statistically significant relative to season and this is likely to be related to the stable temperatures recorded at the bottom of Qinghai Lake. Over-dispersed distributions of N. qinghaiensis in the host population, due to heterogeneity and feeding habits, were observed in all seasons. The size composition of both sexes of N. qinghaiensis showed males to be less than 3.5 mm and females between 0.5 and 4.25 mm, with the main recruitment phase in the worm populations occurring in the autumn, extending through winter and spring with the lowest recruitment occurring in the summer. The maturation and copulation of worms were mainly focused in the summer season. The sex ratio of female to male was both high in winter (1.51:1) and spring (1.48:1). The higher proportion of females and the change in the worm sex ratio in winter can be attributed to the reduced longevity of male worms. As immature male worms exhibit a higher proportion of the worm population than females in all seasons, further studies are needed to determine if such a situation compensates for the shorter life span of males.     

Seasonal changes in the chloroplast ultrastructure of Diapensia lapponica

Leaf specimens of evergreen Diapensia lapponica were collected monthly in Northern Finland (ca 70°N) in order to study seasonal changes in the ultrastructure of the chloroplasts of the palisade mesophyll.
The volume fraction of chloroplasts per cell was lowest in summer and increased towards autumn and winter. However, the relative size seemed to be higher in summer than in other seasons. Length/width (L/W) ratio was calculated as an index of the chloroplast shape. The shape varied from elongated (usually concavo-convex in profile), with an L/W ratio from 1.9 to 2.5 in summer, to roundish or irregular (L/W ratio from 1.2 to 1.4) in midwinter. In autumn the chloroplasts were most elongated (LW ratio 2.6). The starch content was highest at the end of June when it constituted 38% of the volume of chloroplast. It decreased from then till November and was absent during the rest of the winter. Changes in the thylakoid system involved an increase in the number of partitions from an average of three in early summer to 11 in autumn and a decrease to M again towards winter. In spring it was up to 7 again. The large grana and high portion of stroma thylakoids observed in late August - September (the period of rhythmic light) are consistent with the high photosynthesis activity reported previously in D. lapponica in laboratory conditions.