Selective age-related changes in the PKC-sensitive, calmodulin-binding protein, neurogranin, in the mouse brain

Brain ageing is associated with a dysregulation of intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) homeostasis which leads to deficits in Ca(2+)-dependent signalling pathways and altered neuronal functions. Given the crucial role of neurogranin/RC3 (Ng) in the post-synaptic regulation of Ca(2+) and calmodulin levels, age-dependent changes in the levels of Ng mRNA and protein expression were analysed in 3, 12, 24 and 31-month-old mouse brains. Ageing produced significant decreases in Ng mRNA expression in the dorsal hippocampal subfields, retrosplenial and primary motor cortices, whereas no reliable changes were seen in any other cortical regions examined. Western blot indicated that Ng protein expression was also down-regulated in the ageing mouse brain. Analysis of Ng immunoreactivity in both hippocampal CA1 and retrosplenial areas indicated that Ng protein in aged mice decreased predominantly in the dendritic segments of pyramidal neurones. These data suggest that age-related changes of post-synaptic Ng in selected brain areas, and particularly in hippocampus, may contribute to altered Ca(2+)/calmodulin-signalling pathways and to region-specific impairments of synaptic plasticity and cognitive decline.     

Bonding, biophilia, biosynergy, and the future of primates in the wild

Human and nonhuman primates bond with one another in countless ways, and the results are varied and vital to the individuals and species involved. The manifesto that is the basis for the collection of essays in which this commentary is included proposes that the "human/nonhuman bonds that arise in primatological research and practice deserve and demand study and research." An essential corollary of this proposal is that the primatologists themselves must be studied. The aim of this essay is to explore the influence of human/nonhuman primate bonding on conservation practice and on the future of primates in the wild. This commentary applies the author's professional experience as a conservation psychologist and his research on the impact of profound interspecies bonds on human worldviews, attitudes, and behavior. It examines two general categories of bonds: those driven by Biophilia (human fascination with life) and those influenced by Biosynergy (mutual enrichment of life). It is the author's premise that biosynergy promotes complex collaborative interspecies bonds that broaden the conservationist's desire to enhance synergy among all organisms in an ecosystem. Conversely, biophilia induces relatively simple unidirectional bonds between humans and other animals that deepen the conservationist's desire to understand and protect certain species. This contrast raises some crucial questions. Do biophilia-driven bonds between conservationists and their favorite primates blind them to the synergistic needs of all species and impair their ability to work for sustained preservation of threatened habitat? Does biosynergy-based human/nature bonding enhance focus on conservation as an ecological science and thus ignore species-specific factors crucial to assure survival of endangered primates? How can both types of bonds be optimally applied to the conservation of wildlife and wilderness?     

Stress,adaptation, and speciation in the evolution of the blind mole rat,Spalax, in Israel

Environmental stress played a major role in the evolution of the blind mole rat superspecies Spalax ehrenbergi, affecting its adaptive evolution and ecological speciation underground. Spalax is safeguarded all of its life underground from aboveground climatic fluctuations and predators. However, it encounters multiple stresses in its underground burrows including darkness, energetics, hypoxia, hypercapnia, food scarcity, and pathogenicity. Consequently, it evolved adaptive genomic, proteomic, and phenomic complexes to cope with those stresses. Here I describe some of these adaptive complexes, and their theoretical and applied perspectives. Spalax mosaic molecular and organismal evolution involves reductions or regressions coupled with expansions or progressions caused by evolutionary tinkering and natural genetic engineering. Speciation of Spalax in Israel occurred in the Pleistocene, during the last 2.00–2.35 Mya, generating four species associated intimately with four climatic regimes with increasing aridity stress southwards and eastwards representing an ecological speciational adaptive trend: (Spalax golani, 2n = 54 → S. galili, 2n = 52 → S. carmeli, 2n = 58 → S. judaei, 2n = 60). Darwinian ecological speciation occurred gradually with relatively little genetic change by Robertsonian chromosomal and genic mutations. Spalax genome sequencing has just been completed. It involves multiple adaptive complexes to life underground and is an evolutionary model to a few hundred underground mammals. It involves great promise in the future for medicine, space flight, and deep-sea diving.     

Reproduction in the rusty bat, Pipistrellus rusticus, in the northern Transvaal bushveld, South Africa

Rusty bats are seasonally monoestrous and give birth to twins during November. Spermatozoa are present in the epididymides from March to August but absent from the testes from April until September. Males thus store spermatozoa in the epididymis for 5 months of the year (April-August). Mating is initiated during April with uterine horns exhibiting a 3-fold increase in sperm volume between April and July samples. It is concluded that ovulation and fertilization occur during the second half of August. Up to 5 conceptuses per female were recorded, but a maximum of only 2 implantations was observed.     

Diacylglycerol, phosphatidic acid, and the converting enzyme, diacylglycerol kinase, in the nucleus

There exists phosphoinositide (PI) cycle in the nucleus, which is operated differentially from the classical PI cycle at the plasma membrane. Evidence has been accumulated that nuclear PIs and the related enzymes are closely involved in a variety of nuclear processes, although the details remain to be elucidated. In this mini review, some components of PI cycle, i.e., diacylglycerol, phosphatidic acid, and the converting enzyme, diacylglycerol kinase, in the nucleus are discussed with focusing on the lipid metabolism, cell cycle regulation, and animal models.     

Health-risk assessment related to the fluoride,nitrate, and nitrite in the drinking water in the Sanandaj,Kurdistan County,Iran

The concentration of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater is usually higher than that of surface water. The main objective of this study was to estimate the health-risk assessment associated with fluoride, nitrate, and nitrite in drinking water in Sanandaj and its villages. The number of samples in the Sanandaj and its rural was 106. The average concentration of fluoride in urban and rural drinking water was 0.22 mg/l and 0.27 mg/l, respectively. Fluoride concentration was also close to urban and rural drinking water. The concentration of nitrate in urban and rural drinking water was in the range between 0.28–27.77 mg/l and 1.28–80 mg/l, respectively. The concentration of nitrate reported in rural samples was higher than that of urban samples. The maximum concentration of nitrate reported in this study was 80 mg/l. The mean CDI for nitrate in the men, women, and children was 0.4258, 0.5110, and 1.1454, respectively. The findings of this study indicated that all three groups studied were exposed to nitrate contact hazards (HQ > 1). Therefore, the HQ in each of the three groups was higher than 1, which should be carefully monitored and necessary measures should be performed.     

Seasonal variation in the diet of juvenile lake sturgeon,Acipenser fulvescens,Rafinesque, 1817, in the Winnipeg River,Manitoba, Canada

The lake sturgeon, Acipenser fulvescens, is a threatened species across most of its range. To understand any potential shifts in diet across season or habitat, stomach contents were examined from juvenile lake sturgeon caught in the Winnipeg River, Manitoba, Canada. This information will aid in assessment of environmental impacts and conservation initiatives for this threatened species. From 2006 to 2008 gut contents were collected from juvenile lake sturgeon using a non‐lethal gastric lavage methodology. Juvenile lake sturgeon were sampled from four discrete deep water habitat types (13.7–27.4 m depths), during the months of May, June, July and October. In total, 13 066 prey items belonging to 14 prey groups were collected from 345 juvenile lake sturgeon (251–835 mm TL). Overall, juvenile lake sturgeon consumed a low diversity of organisms; insect larvae from three invertebrate orders, Trichoptera, Diptera and Ephemeroptera, accounted for 97.4% of the total numeric abundance of prey items recovered. A relationship between size of juvenile lake sturgeon and prey quantity or type was not observed. Diet of juvenile lake sturgeon varied in relation to season, with Diptera (77.6%) being the most abundant prey in May, Trichoptera the most abundant in June (n = 3,056, 60.4%) and July (n = 2,055, 52.6%). During October, 96% of stomachs examined were empty. In terms of habitat type, the standardized abundance of invertebrate prey items was highest in deep water habitats characterized by medium water velocity (depths > 13.7 m) and coarse substrate (particle sizes > 0.063 mm) in May and June when compared to deep water habitats characterized by low water velocity (<0.2 m.s^?1) and fine substrate (particle sizes < 0.063 mm). However, in July, the opposite was observed and prey abundance in juvenile lake sturgeon stomachs decreased with increasing particle size. Results suggest a high degree of dietary overlap among juvenile lake sturgeon from multiple size/age classes occupying deep‐water habitats of the Winnipeg River.     

Cholinesterases and arylesterase in the umbilical cord, the placenta, and the amniotic membrane, in the female at term]

Cholinesterasic activity of umbilical cord (tissue), completely bloodless, is exclusively due to pseudocholinesterase. Cholinesterase is more active in placenta than in cord; it is an acetylcholinesterase at 80 per cent. Both forms coexist, about equally, in amniotic membrane. A considerable arylesterasic activity is proved in cord, placenta and membrane, the greatest activity being in placenta. Comparing the greater activity in maternal plasma and cord blood's plasma to the very weak activity in amniotic fluid, it is possible to think that cork, membrane, placenta and also amniotic fluid pseudocholinesterase and arylesterase, come from plasma. On the contrary, placental acetylcholinesterase seems original and probably is the source of this enzyme activity in amniotic fluid.     

Notch signaling in the mammalian respiratory system,specifically the trachea and lungs,in development,homeostasis, regeneration,and disease

The respiratory system has ideal tissue structure and cell types for efficient gas exchange to intake oxygen and release carbon dioxide. This complex system develops through orchestrated intercellular signaling among various cell types, such as club, ciliated, basal, neuroendocrine, AT1, AT2, endothelial, and smooth muscle cells. Notch signaling is a highly conserved cell–cell signaling pathway ideally suited for very short-range cellular communication because Notch signals are transmitted by direct contact with an adjacent cell. Enthusiastic efforts by Notch researchers over the last two decades have led to the identification of critical roles of this signaling pathway during development, homeostasis, and regeneration of the respiratory system. The dysregulation of Notch signaling results in a wide range of respiratory diseases such as pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), interstitial pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), and lung cancer. Thus, a deep understanding of the biological functions of Notch signaling will help identify novel treatment targets in various respiratory diseases.     

Ceruletide acts in the abdomen, not in the brain, to produce satiety

Ceruletide (caerulein), a decapeptide extracted from the skin of the frog, Hyla caerulea, is very similar in structure to the C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin (CCK-8). Although ceruletide and CCK-8 act through similar or identical receptors to produce the same visceral effects, previous studies in the rat suggested that peripherally administered ceruletide acted directly on the ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) area to decrease food intake, but peripherally administered CCK-8 acted at a vagally innervated abdominal site to decrease food intake. Since it is unprecedented for these two peptides to produce the same effect by acting at different sites, we investigated the site of action of ceruletide's satiety effect in the rat and compared it to the site of action of CCK-8. The major results were: (1) intraperitoneal administration of ceruletide and CCK-8 inhibited food intake, but intraventricular administration did not; (2) the satiety effect of ceruletide and CCK-8 was not changed by bilateral lesions of the VMH; and (3) the satiety effect of ceruletide and CCK-8 was abolished or markedly reduced by bilateral abdominal vagotomy. We conclude that ceruletide acts at the same vagally innervated abdominal site to produce satiety as CCK-8 does and that neither peptide acts directly on the VMH area.     

Species variation in the distribution of cholinesterases in the ovary of the plains viscacha, cat, ferret, rabbit, rat, guinea-pig and roe deer

Synopsis Sections of ovary from plains viscacha, cat, ferret, rabbit, rat, guinea-pig and roe deer have been histochemically processed to demonstrate acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) in nervous and non-nervous tissue. The effects of different reproductive states on enzyme activity were observed in some animals. AChE-containing nerves were sparse in rabbit and rat but plentiful in cat and roe deer. Nerves containing BuChE were not detectable in ferret or guinea-pig and were rare in cat. Species variations in the activity and type of enzyme were also found in non-neuronal tissues. Some blood vessels in the ovaries of guinea-pig and viscacha contained AChE. No other species showed a reaction for AChE in non-neuronal stromal tissue but BuChE was present at this site in all animals except rat. Granulosa cells reacted for AChE only in cat and rabbit while luteal cells were reactive in cat, rabbit and roe deer. Some BuChE activity was present in granulosa and or luteal cells in all species except roe deer. In rat, BuChE activity in luteal cells increased during oregnaney and the early phase of pseudopregnancy. The difficulty of assigning a function to ovarian cholinesterases is discussed.     

Localization of the Po2 locus in the S, Phi, Hal, H, Po2, Pgd linkage group in pigs

The localization of the Po2 locus controlling a polymorphic serum postalbumin was studied in 41 families of the Czech Landrace breed. The haplotypes involving six closely linked loci (S, Phi, Hal, H, Po2, Pgd) were determined for each family member. The crossovers observed between the H, Po2 and Pgd loci indicated that Po2 is located between H and Pgd. The Po2 locus appears to be closer to H [theta = 0.54% (0.06%-1.92%)] than to Pgd [theta = 4.02% (1.67%-7.96%)]. A strong Ha-Po2S association (r = 0.96, P less than 0.001) and H-PO2 linkage disequilibrium (D = 0.2218, P less than 0.01, D/DMax = 0.98) were found.     

Sedentism,Social Change,Warfare, and the Bow in the Ancient Pueblo Southwest

In the ancient American Southwest, use of the bow developed relatively rapidly among Pueblo people by the fifth century AD. This new technology replaced the millennia‐old atlatl and dart weaponry system. Roughly 150 years later in the AD 600s, Pueblo socioeconomic organization began to evolve rapidly, as many groups adopted a much more sedentary life. Multiple factors converged to allow this sedentary pattern to emerge, but the role of the bow in this process has not been fully explored. In this paper, we trace the development of the bow and discuss its role as sedentism emerged and social changes occurred in ancient Puebloan society from the fifth through seventh centuries AD.     

Colonization, larval survival and epidemiology of the nematode Anguillicola crassus, parasitic in the eel, Anguilla anguilla, in Britain

In late 1987, immature Anguillicola crassus were reported for the first time in Britain from eels from two river systems. By late 1988, gravid adults were present in a number of rivers in the east of England in two discrete centres of distribution: one in East Anglia correlated with the route taken by lorries exporting eels to the continent, and one in the R. Thames correlated with the import of eels to London. The parasite was firmly established in the R. Trent, where prevalence levels reached 100% in some places. Laboratory investigations showed that adult parasites and their eggs remained viable even after infected eels had been maintained for 4 weeks in 100% sea water. Hatching of eggs declined with increasing salinity, but was not totally inhibited by sea water. Survival and infectivity of freeliving second stage larvae were maximal in natural fresh water (95% survival for 4 months, and 50% still infective to copepod intermediate hosts after 70 days), but declined in alkaline water and with increased salinity. Nevertheless, in 100% sea water, 50% of larvae were still infective after 8 days. Specificity to the intermediate host was low, and eels of all sizes could be infected. These characteristics, plus a high reproductive potential, give the parasite exceptional colonization potential and ability, enabling it to survive natural movements of eels from catchment to catchment and to increase rapidly within a new locality. The ability of free-living larvae to adhere to the substratum and survive in sea water enables them to survive in eel-transport lorries from which they will not readily be removed by flushing, the normal cleansing procedure. It is concluded that there were two separate introductions of the parasite to Britain; via the eel import trade through London, and, totally unexpectedly, via the eel export trade in lorries traversing East Anglia. The parasite is now firmly established in Britain and will continue to spread by natural movements of eels but especially by human-assisted movements of infected eels for stocking and market. This latter practice is recognized as a major factor in introducing and disseminating fish parasites.     

Age and growth of the ajime-loach,niwaella delicata, in the yura river, kyoto, japan

The age of the Ajime-loach,Niwaella delicata (a species endemic to Japan), was determined from the number of concentric rings appearing on the cross-sectional surface of the erectile spine (peculiar to Cobitidae). The ages of loaches caught in the Yura River, Kyoto, were determined and growth rates for each sex estimated. It was found that size dimorphism in this species was due to different growth patterns between the sexes, 2.5 years old males being larger than females and usually sexually mature, unlike the latter. Females older than 3.5 years were sexually mature and larger than males of equivalent age.     

Fear, anxiety, and control in the zebrafish

Emotional responses are triggered by environmental signals and involve profound changes at multiple levels, from molecular to behavior. Much has been learnt about two emotions, fear and anxiety, by studying mammalian models. In particular, neural circuits and the corresponding molecular mechanisms essential for the learning and retention of fear, as well as the activation of anxiety, are well known. In contrast, little is known about how these emotions are terminated. The zebrafish is a newcomer to the world of emotion research. A number of assays for fear and anxiety now exist, but the underlying neural circuitry is largely undefined. Recent experiments, however, appear to provide a hint as to how anxiety is downregulated. In particular, they point to an essential role for a circuit involving the posterior septum, medial habenula, and interpeduncular nucleus. This evolutionarily conserved circuit may fulfill a similar function in mammals.     

War, Factionalism, and the State in Afghanistan

Since September 11, 2001, the explanations offered to account for the rise of a foreign-led terrorist network on Afghan soil have variously focused on the political vacuum opened up by the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, interference by foreign powers in Afghanistan's internal affairs, the failure of Afghanistan to produce a "strong state" because of ethnic factionalism, and an internal moral incoherence inherent to Afghan culture. I argue that none of these explanations is entirely satisfactory in itself. To understand the situation in Afghanistan, we must recognize that its political and military chaos is not an isolated or unique phenomenon, and at the same time acknowledge the particular social and political dynamics of Afghanistan's history that have set the parameters for current events. I show that communal conflicts in Afghanistan are part of a much wider affliction common to many postcolonial states and multinational societies, and that Afghanistan's current situation can only be understood by focusing on its failed attempts at nation-state building within the broader geopolitical circumstance of foreign manipulation and proxy wars that have given rise to particular forms of ethnic division. [Keywords: Afghanistan, nation-building, ethnic factionalism, warfare, the State]     

Selenium, the element of the moon, in life on earth

The present status of selenium biochemistry is reviewed with particular emphasis on biomedical problems related to the selenium status of humans and experimental animals. Historical milestones of selenium biochemistry starting from the identification of the first selenoenzymes up to the elucidation of prokaryotic and eukaryotic selenoprotein biosynthesis are compiled. Topical hypotheses on the biological role of selenium in general and of individual selenoproteins in respect to antioxidant defense, redox regulation of metabolic processes, thyroid function, spermatogenesis, oncogenesis, and atherogenesis are critically evaluated.     

Altitude, migration, and fertility in the Andes

In order to examine the relationship between hypoxia and reduced fertility of high Andean populations, a sample of 241 females living in the low-altitude Tambo Valley of Peru was studied. 63 of the subjects were born in the low-altitude valley, 121 were migrants from high altitudes, and 57 were migrants born in low altitudes. The rate of abortion was low among high-altitude subjects before they migrated, but became greater after migrating. It was found that the high-altitude populations had almost twice as long parity intervals than the low-altitude populations. Compared to migrants born at low altitudes, the high-altitude-born subjects who migrated to low altitudes had higher fertility rates. The results of the study are consistent with the hypothesis that high altitudes, through anoxia, have a lowering effect on fertility. Of the several possible explanations which might account for the increase in fertility of downward migrants on migration from high to low altitude (migration, socioeconomic factors, acculturation, seasonal male emigration from high altitude, and removal of hypoxia stress), altitude appears to be the most significant.     

Quantitation of the involvement of the recA, recB, recC, recF, recJ, recN, lexA, radA, radB, uvrD, and umuC genes in the repair of X-ray-induced DNA double-strand breaks in Escherichia coli

Isogenic Escherichia coli strains carrying single DNA-repair mutations were compared for their capacity for (i) the repair of X-ray-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) as measured using neutral sucrose gradients; (ii) medium-dependent resistance, i.e., a recA-dependent X-ray survival phenomenon that correlates closely with the capacity for repairing DSB; and (iii) the growth medium-dependent, recA-dependent repair of X-ray-induced DNA single-strand breaks (SSB) as measured using alkaline sucrose gradients (about 80% of these SSB are actually parts of DSB). These three capacities were measured to quantitate more accurately the involvement of the various genes in the repair of DSB over a wide dose range. The mutations tested were grouped into five classes according to their effect on the repair of X-ray-induced DSB: (I) the recA, recB, recC, and lexA mutants were completely deficient; (II) the radB and recN mutants were about 90% deficient; (III) the recF and recJ mutants were about 70% deficient; (IV) the radA and uvrD mutants were about 30% deficient; and (V) the umuC mutant resembled the wild-type strains in its capacity for the repair of DSB.