Dopamine for “Wanting” and Opioids for “Liking”: A Comparison of Obese Adults With and Without Binge Eating

Obesity research suffers from an overinclusion paradigm whereby all participants with a BMI beyond a certain cutoff value (e.g., 30) are typically combined in a single group and compared to those of normal weight. There has been little attempt to identify meaningful subgroups defined by their salient biobehavioral differences. In order to address this limitation, we examined genetic and psychological indicators of hedonic eating in obese adults with (n = 66) and without (n = 70) binge eating disorder (BED). Our analyses focused on dopamine (DA) and opioid genetic markers because of their conjoint association with the functioning of brain reward mechanisms. We targeted three functional polymorphisms related to the D2 receptor (DRD2) gene, as well as the functional A118G polymorphism of the mu‐opioid receptor (OPRM1) gene. We found that significantly more obese controls had the “loss‐of‐function” A1 allele of Taq1A compared to their BED counterparts, whereas the “gain‐of‐function” G allele of A118G occurred with greater frequency in the BED group. A significant gene–gene combination χ² analysis also indicated that of those participants with the gain‐gain genotype (G⁺ and A1), 80% were in the BED group whereas only 35% with the loss‐loss genotype (G^? and A1⁺) were in this group. Finally, BED subjects had significantly higher scores on a self‐report measure of hedonic eating. Our findings suggest that BED is a biologically based subtype of obesity and that the proneness to binge eating may be influenced by a hyper‐reactivity to the hedonic properties of food—a predisposition that is easily exploited in our current environment with its highly visible and easily accessible surfeit of sweet and fatty foods.     

Waterlogging induced oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities in pigeon pea

An experiment was conducted with two contrasting pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) genotypes, ICPL 84023 (tolerant) and ICP 7035 (susceptible), to study the physiological and molecular basis of waterlogging tolerance in relation to oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities. Waterlogging resulted in visible yellowing and premature senescence of leaves, and greater decline in relative water content, chlorophyll content, and membrane stability index in ICP 7035 than in ICPL 84023. Superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide contents increased at day 4 and 6 of waterlogging probably due to activation of NADPH-oxidase. O₂ ^·− production was inhibited, by diphenylene iodonium chloride, a specific inhibitor of NADPH oxidase and expression of NADPH oxidase-mRNA was increased under waterlogging condition in ICPL 84023. ICP 7035 showed higher contents of ROS in control condition and after recovery, however, during waterlogging the O₂ ^·− production was higher in ICPL 84023. Activities of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase and catalase increased under waterlogging more in ICPL 84023 than in ICP 7035. Cu/Zn-SOD and APX-mRNA expression in 24-h waterlogged plants showed enhanced expression in ICPL 84023 compared to ICP 7035. The cloning and sequencing of APX gene of tolerant and susceptible genotypes yielded cDNAs of 622 and 623 bp, having 95 % homology with each other and 92 % with the corresponding sequences of Vigna unguiculate APX-gene.     

Role of antioxidant and anaerobic metabolism enzymes in providing tolerance to maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings against waterlogging

The present investigation was undertaken to identify the possible mode of mechanism that could provide tolerance to maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings under waterlogging. Using cup method, a number of maize genotypes were screened on the basis of survival of the seedlings kept under waterlogging. Two tolerant (LM5 and Parkash) and three susceptible (PMH2, JH3459 and LM14) genotypes were selected for the present study. Activities of antioxidant and ethanolic fermentation enzymes and content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), glutathione and ascorbic acid were determined in roots of these genotypes after 72 h of waterlogging. Waterlogging treatment caused decline in activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in all the genotypes. However, only susceptible genotypes showed slight increase in glutathione reductase (GR) activity. Significant reduction in APX/GR ratio in susceptible genotypes might be the cause of their susceptibility to waterlogging. The tolerant seedlings had higher GR activity than susceptible genotypes under unstressed conditions. Stress led to decrease in H202 and increase in glutathione content of both tolerant and susceptible genotypes, but only tolerant genotypes exhibited increase in ascorbic acid under waterlogging conditions. In the tolerant genotypes, all the enzymes of anaerobic metabolism viz. alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) were upregulated under waterlogging, whereas in susceptible genotypes, only ADH was upregulated, suggesting that efficient upregulation of entire anaerobic metabolic machinery is essential for providing tolerance against waterlogging. The study provides a possible mechanism for waterlogging tolerance in maize.     

Tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” for gene therapy

In this review, we focus on strategies for designing functional nano gene carriers, as well as choosing therapeutic genes targeting the tumor microenvironment. Gene mutations have a great impact on the occurrence of cancer. Thus, gene therapy plays a major role in cancer therapy and has the potential to cure cancer. Well‐designed gene therapy largely relies on effective gene carriers, which can be divided into viral carriers and non‐viral carriers. A gene carrier delivers functional genes to their intracellular target and avoids nucleic acids being degraded by nucleases in the serum. Most conventional cancer gene therapies only target cancer cells and do not appear to be sufficintly efficient to pass clinical trials. Accumulating evidence has shown that extending the therapeutic strategies to the tumor microenvironment, rather than the tumor cell itself, can allow more options for achieving robust anti‐cancer efficiency. In addition, unusual features between tumor microenvironment and normal tissues, such as a lower pH, higher glutathione and reactive oxygen species concentrations, and overexpression of some enzymes, facilitate the design of smart stimuli‐responsive gene carriers regulated by the tumor microenvironment. These carriers interact with nucleic acids and then form stable nanoparticles under physiological conditions. By regulation of the tumor microenvironment, stimuli‐responsive gene carriers are able to change their properties and achieve high gene delivery efficiency. Considering the tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” when designing gene carriers and choosing therapeutic genes shows significant benefit with respect to improving the accuracy and efficiency of cancer gene therapy.     

Yield, growth and physiological responses of mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] genotypes to waterlogging at vegetative stage

A study was conducted to examine the physiological response of contrasting mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes viz., T 44 & MH–96–1 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi & MH–1K–24 (sensitive) under waterlogging conditions. Plants were waterlogged at vegetative stage (30 days after sowing) for 3, 6 and 9 days. Waterlogging resulted in decreased leaf area, crop growth rate, root growth and nodules number, membrane stability index, photosynthesis rate, chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, flowering rate, pod setting, yield and altered dry matter partitioning. Sensitive genotypes showed large reductions in aforementioned physiological traits and slow recovery in photosynthesis rate. On the other hand, tolerant genotypes maintained higher photosynthetic rate, chlorophylls and carotenoids, growth rate, membrane stability and fast photosynthetic recovery under waterlogging. After 9 days of exposure to waterlogging, photosynthetic rate and yield losses in most sensitive genotype (MH-1K-24) were 83 and 85 %, respectively. On an average, photosynthetic loss at 3, 6 and 9 days of waterlogging was 43, 51, and 63 %, respectively, while grain yield loss was 20, 34 and 52 % respectively.     

Genetic variation in the β, β‐carotene‐9′, 10′‐dioxygenase gene and association with fat colour in bovine adipose tissue and milk

β, β‐carotene‐9′, 10′‐dioxygenase (BCO2) plays a role in cleaving β‐carotene eccentrically, and may be involved in the control of adipose and milk colour in cattle. The bovine BCO2 gene was sequenced as a potential candidate gene for a beef fat colour QTL on chromosome (BTA) 15. A single nucleotide base change located in exon 3 causes the substitution of a stop codon (encoded by the A allele) for tryptophan⁸⁰ (encoded by the G allele) (c. 240G>A, p.Trp80stop, referred to herein as SNP W80X). Association analysis showed significant differences in subcutaneous fat colour and beta‐carotene concentration amongst cattle with different BCO2 genotypes. Animals with the BCO2 AA genotype had more yellow beef fat and a higher beta‐carotene concentration in adipose tissues than those with the GA or GG genotype. QTL mapping analysis with the BCO2 SNP W80X fitted as a fixed effect confirmed that this SNP is likely to represent the quantitative trait nucleotide (QTN) for the fat colour‐related traits on BTA 15. Moreover, animals with the AA genotype had yellower milk colour and a higher concentration of beta‐carotene in the milk.     

Neuregulin 4: A “Hotline” Between Brown Fat and Liver

The discovery that functional brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult humans is inversely related to body fat mass and may reflect metabolic health has stimulated adipose tissue research to explore activation of BAT as a potential target for antiobesity treatments. In addition to the capacity of BAT to increase energy expenditure and glucose and lipid uptake, BAT secretes factors that may contribute to the regulation of whole‐body metabolism. Among signals released from BAT, neuregulin 4 (NRG4) has been recently identified as an endocrine factor that may link the activation of BAT to protection against diet‐induced obesity, insulin resistance, and hepatic steatosis. NRG4 was shown to directly reduce lipogenesis in hepatocytes, and it could indirectly activate BAT via sympathetic neurons or via inducing brown adipocyte–like signatures in white adipocytes in a paracrine manner. However, the potential relevance of NRG4 as a diagnostic tool or target for the treatment of obesity‐related diseases remains to be explored.     

Evolution of Protein Targeting into “Complex” Plastids: The “Secretory Transport Hypothesis”

Abstract: In algae different types of plastids are known, which vary in pigment content and ultrastructure, providing an opportunity to study their evolutionary origin. One interesting feature is the number of envelope membranes surrounding the plastids. Red algae, green algae and glaucophytes have plastids with two membranes. They are thought to originate from a primary endocytobiosis event, a process in which a prokaryotic cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryotic host cell and transformed into a plastid. Several other algal groups, like euglenophytes and heterokont algae (diatoms, brown algae, etc.), have plastids with three or four surrounding membranes, respectively, probably reflecting the evolution of these organisms by so‐called secondary endocytobiosis, which is the uptake of a eukaryotic alga by a eukaryotic host cell. A prerequisite for the successful establishment of primary or secondary endocytobiosis must be the development of suitable protein targeting machineries to allow the transport of nucleus‐encoded plastid proteins across the various plastid envelope membranes. Here, we discuss the possible evolution of such protein transport systems. We propose that the secretory system of the respective host cell might have been the essential tool to establish protein transport into primary as well as into secondary plastids.     

Transcriptome analysis reveals the difference between “healthy” and “common” aging and their connection with age‐related diseases

A key goal of aging research was to understand mechanisms underlying healthy aging and develop methods to promote the human healthspan. One approach is to identify gene regulations unique to healthy aging compared with aging in the general population (i.e., “common” aging). Here, we leveraged Genotype‐Tissue Expression (GTEx) project data to investigate “healthy” and “common” aging gene expression regulations at a tissue level in humans and their interconnection with diseases. Using GTEx donors' disease annotations, we defined a “healthy” aging cohort for each tissue. We then compared the age‐associated genes derived from this cohort with age‐associated genes from the “common” aging cohort which included all GTEx donors; we also compared the “healthy” and “common” aging gene expressions with various disease‐associated gene expressions to elucidate the relationships among “healthy,” “common” aging and disease. Our analyses showed that 1. GTEx “healthy” and “common” aging shared a large number of gene regulations; 2. Despite the substantial commonality, “healthy” and “common” aging genes also showed distinct function enrichment, and “common” aging genes had a higher enrichment for disease genes; 3. Disease‐associated gene regulations were overall different from aging gene regulations. However, for genes regulated by both, their regulation directions were largely consistent, implying some aging processes could increase the susceptibility to disease development; and 4. Possible protective mechanisms were associated with some “healthy” aging gene regulations. In summary, our work highlights several unique features of GTEx “healthy” aging program. This new knowledge could potentially be used to develop interventions to promote the human healthspan.     

Nutrient accumulation and distribution of wheat genotypes in response to waterlogging and nutrient supply

The effect of soil waterlogging and nutrient supply on plant nutrient accumulation and distribution was investigated for two genotypes of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) differing in waterlogging resistance, Bayles and Savannah. Plants were grown in waterlogged or drained sand and fertilized with half-strength or full-strength Hoagland's solution.Waterlogging reduced the concentrations of N, P, K, Mg, and Zn in leaves and stems and increased the concentrations of those elements in the root system. The effects were greater for waterlogging-sensitive Bayles than for waterlogging-resistant Savannah. Higher concentrations of Fe and Mn were found in waterlogged plants compared to the control plants for sensitive Bayles. Waterlogging increased the proportion of N and Zn in the root system and decreased that of K in stems for Bayles. The proportion of Fe increased in leaves and stems for Bayles and Savannah under waterlogged conditions, but to a greater extent for Bayles. Doubling the concentrations of all major and minor nutrient elements supplied to the waterlogged rooting medium improved plant nutrient status and enhanced plant dry matter production.     

Waterlogging-induced increase in sugar mobilization, fermentation, and related gene expression in the roots of mung bean (Vigna radiata)

The objective of this study was to examine the role of root carbohydrate levels and metabolism in the waterlogging tolerance of contrasting mung bean genotypes. An experiment was conducted with two cultivated mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes viz., T44 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi (PB) (susceptible), and a wild Vigna species Vigna luteola under pot-culture to study the physiological and molecular mechanism of waterlogging tolerance. Waterlogging resulted in decrease in relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI) in root and leaf tissues, and chlorophyll (Chl) content in leaves, while the Chl a/b ratio increased. Waterlogging-induced decline in RWC, MSI, Chl and increase in Chl a/b ratio was greater in PB than V. luteola and T44. Waterlogging caused decline in total and non-reducing sugars in all the genotypes and reducing sugars in PB, while the content of reducing sugar increased in V. luteola and T44. The pattern of variation in reducing sugar content in the 3 genotypes was parallel to sucrose synthase (SS) activity. V. luteola and T44 also showed fewer declines in total and non-reducing sugars and greater increase in reducing sugar and SS activity than PB. Activity of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) increased up to 8d of waterlogging in V. luteola and T44, while in PB a marginal increase was observed only up to 4d of treatment. Gene expression studies done by RT-PCR in 24h waterlogged plants showed enhanced expression of ADH and SS in the roots of V. luteola and T44, while in PB there was no change in expression level in control or treated plants. PCR band products were cloned and sequenced, and partial cDNAs of 531, 626, and 667; 702, 736, and 744bp of SS and ADH, respectively were obtained. The partial cDNA sequences of cloned SS genes showed 93-100 homologies among different genotypes and with D10266, while in case of ADH the similarity was in the range of 97-100% amongst each other and with Z23170. The results suggest that the availability of sufficient sugar reserve in the roots, activity of SS to provide reducing sugars for glycolytic activity and ADH for the recycling of NADH, and for the continuation of glycolysis, could be one of the important mechanisms of waterlogging tolerance of V. radiata genotype T44 and wild species V. luteola. This was reflected in better RWC and Chl content in leaves, and membrane stability of leaf and root tissue in V. luteola and T44.     

“Ecological Armageddon” – more evidence for the drastic decline in insect numbers

The efficient use of nitrogen by crops can minimise environmental risks and maximise returns to farmers. Under organic farming systems, this can be achieved by adjusting the fertilisation management and/or using genetic variability. Seven durum wheat (Triticum durum) cultivars and three emmer (Triticum dicoccum) cultivars were assessed under an organic farming system over a non‐consecutive 4‐year period (2005–11) in Foggia (southern Italy). The objectives were to investigate the agronomic and qualitative characteristics, and to evaluate the agronomic efficiency and adaptability according to three N fertilisation levels (0, 40, 80 kg N ha^?1). A split‐plot design was used, with three replications in each year. Nine traits were investigated: heading time, plant height, seed yield, number of spikes m^?2, harvest index, specific weight, 1000‐seed weight, and protein and gluten contents. Increasing N to 80 kg ha^?1 increased plant height (+7.3%), seed yield (+22.1%), spike density (+16.6%), and protein (+9.8%) and gluten (+2.1%) contents. The emmer genotypes and the oldest durum wheat ‘Cappelli’ showed the highest protein and gluten contents (mean, 13.9%, 11.2%, respectively). The maximum N agronomic efficiency [AE(N)] and N recovery efficiency [RE(N)] were seen for the modern durum wheat cultivars under 40 kg ha^?1 N treatment: ‘Duilio’, ‘Iride’ and ‘Varano’. The significant correlation between AE(N) and RE(N) and the year of release of the durum wheat cultivars (r = 0.53, P < 0.05, F = 4.7 for AE(N) and r = 0.57, P < 0.01, F = 5.7 for RE(N), respectively; n = 14) showed that the genetic breeding of this species for high grain yield is associated with an increase in the efficiency of N fertiliser use under organic farming. The highly significant effect for the Genotype × Environment interaction (F = 18.1, P < 0.001) of seed yield indicate the possibility to select for stable genotypes across environments. Based on the additive main effects and multiplicative interaction analysis, and the yield stability index, the varieties ‘Iride’ and ‘Varano’ show high‐stability responses and good seed yields under all N fertiliser treatments. Therefore, these varieties can be recommended for organic farming systems in Mediterranean areas.     

Antioxidative defense system in pigeonpea roots under waterlogging stress

Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] is a waterlogging-sensitive legume crop. We studied the effect of waterlogging stress on hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) content, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme activities in two pigeonpea genotypes viz., ICPL-84023 (waterlogging resistant) and MAL-18 (waterlogging susceptible). In a pot experiment, waterlogging stress was imposed for 6 days at early vegetative stage (20 days after sowing). Waterlogging treatment significantly increased hydrogen peroxide accumulation and lipid peroxidation, which indicated the extent of oxidative injury posed by stress conditions. Enzyme activities of peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) increased in pigeonpea roots as a consequence of waterlogged conditions, and all the enzyme activities were significantly higher in waterlogged ICPL-84023 than in MAL-18. POX activity was the maximum immediately after imposing stress, therefore, it was suggested to be involved in early scavenging of H₂O₂, while rest of the enzymes (CAT, APX, SOD and PPO) were more important in late responses to waterlogging. Present study revealed that H₂O₂ content is directly related to lipid peroxidation leading to oxidative damage during waterlogging in pigeonpea. Higher antioxidant potential in ICPL-84023 as evidenced by enhanced POX, CAT, APX, SOD and PPO activities increased capacity for reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging and indicated relationship between waterlogging resistance and antioxidant defense system in pigeonpea.     

Review of wheat improvement for waterlogging tolerance in Australia and India: the importance of anaerobiosis and element toxicities associated with different soils

Background and Aims

The lack of knowledge about key traits in field environments is a major constraint to germplasm improvement and crop management because waterlogging-prone environments are highly diverse and complex, and the mechanisms of tolerance to waterlogging include a large range of traits. A model is proposed that waterlogging tolerance is a product of tolerance to anaerobiosis and high microelement concentrations. This is further evaluated with the aim of prioritizing traits required for waterlogging tolerance of wheat in the field.

Methods

Waterlogging tolerance mechanisms of wheat are evaluated in a range of diverse environments through a review of past research in Australia and India; this includes selected soils and plant data, including plant growth under waterlogged and drained conditions in different environments. Measurements focus on changes in redox potential and concentrations of diverse elements in soils and plants during waterlogging.

Key Results

(a) Waterlogging tolerance of wheat in one location often does not relate to another, and (b) element toxicities are often a major constraint in waterlogged environments. Important element toxicities in different soils during waterlogging include Mn, Fe, Na, Al and B. This is the first time that Al and B toxicities have been indicated for wheat in waterlogged soils in India. These results support and extend the well-known interactions of salinity/Na and waterlogging/hypoxia tolerance.

Conclusions

Diverse element toxicities (or deficiencies) that are exacerbated during waterlogging are proposed as a major reason why waterlogging tolerance at one site is often not replicated at another. Recommendations for germplasm improvement for waterlogging tolerance include use of inductively coupled plasma analyses of soils and plants.Key words: Waterlogging, microelements, toxicity, redox potential, wheat, anaerobiosis

‘No grain is ever produced without water, but too much water tends to spoil the grain and inundation is as injurious to growth as dearth of water.’ Narada Smriti XI, 19; circa 3000 bc.‘Waterlogging’ is defined as a condition of the soil where excess water limits gas diffusion; while ‘waterlogging tolerance’ is defined as survival or the maintenance of high growth rates, biomass accumulation or grain yield under waterlogging relative to non waterlogged (usually drained soil) conditions (Setter and Waters, 2003).

     

“INTERNAL THECAE” OF EUNOTIA SOLEIROLII (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE): DEVELOPMENT,STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION AS RESTING SPORES1

The “double thecae” or “internal septa” of Eunotia soleirolii (Kütz.) Rabenh, are shown to represent the thecae of resting spores, as characterized by their physiology, as well as morphology. They differ from all resting spores of centric diatoms by the formation of both their valves as a result of unequal cell divisions; and, from the majority of centric spores by the presence of several girdle bands in both their thecae. Spore formation can be induced by high or low pH, high temperature (24 C), and iron, silica, phosphate or nitrate deficiencies, whereas low temperatures defer it. Spores do not germinate directly, but dormancy can be removed by dark treatments (–2 to 15 C) for a minimum of 4–5 wk. Longer dark treatments result in higher germination rates. At 15 C, a minimum of 2 mo is required and 4 mo is better. Heat treatments (27–42 C) are ineffective, but may shorten the dormancy-breaking subsequent cold period. Instances of secondary dormancy, as well as relative dormancy, were observed. Germination usually occurs in the light between 2 and 21 C. An equal division of the spore is followed by unequal divisions of both new cells with only the two resulting large cells being viable. The experiences in the laboratory aided the discovery of stages of spore germination in nature.     

Effects of Water, Aeration, and Salt Regime on Nitrogen Fixation in a Nodulated Legume--Definition of an Optimum Root Environment

Nitrogen assimilation of pea plants (Pisum sativum cv. Meteor)was studied in growth cabinets tinder a range of water, salt,and aeration regimes in the rooting medium. Treatments wereimposed in the period 14–30 d after germination usingseedlings already nodulated in an optimum root environment. Highest nitrogen fixation in water culture required a strengthof culture solution one fifth of that optimal for fixation insand culture. Fixation in water culture of optimum strengthwas significantly improved by continuous bubble aeration orby lowering the level of culture solution below the main zoneof nodulation. However, if supra-optimal concentrations of solutionwere used, fixation was markedly inhibited by lowering the solutionlevel, this being associated with an accumulation of high levelsof salts on exposed root and nodule surfaces. In – N (minus nitrogen) sand culture continuous waterloggingreduced nitrogen content to 40 per cent of that of non-stressedplants. In nitrate-fed plants waterlogging effects were lesssevere. Waterlogging decreased nodule tissue production anddecreased the specific activity of nitrogenase, as assayed byacetylene reduction. These effects were most marked three ormore cm below the sand surface. Watering on alternate days with free drainage at all times yieldedmaximum fixation in – N sand culture. Regimes increasingthe extent of waterlogging or drying out in comparison withthis optimum produced increasingly great decreases in nitrogenfixation. For equivalent reductions in total fixation, percentageN in dry matter was consistently lower in waterlogged than indroughted plants suggesting that excess water had the more specificeffect on symbiotic activity. Both forms of stress affectedparticularly the transport of nitrogen from root to shoot.