Regulation of gynoecium marginal tissue formation by LEUNIG and AINTEGUMENTA

The carpel is the female reproductive organ of flowering plants. In Arabidopsis, congenital fusion of two carpels leads to the formation of an enclosed gynoecium. The margins of the two fused carpels are meristematic in nature and give rise to placentas, ovules, septa, abaxial repla, and the majority of the stylar and stigmatic tissues. Thus, understanding how the marginal tissues are specified and identifying genes that direct their development may provide important insight into higher plant reproductive development. In this study, we show that LEUNIG and AINTEGUMENTA are two critical regulators of marginal tissue development. Double mutants of leunig aintegumenta fail to develop placentas, ovules, septa, stigma, and style. This effect is specific to the leunig aintegumenta double mutant and is not found in other double mutant combinations such as leunig apetala2 or aintegumenta apetala2. Additional analyses indicate that the absence of marginal tissues in leunig aintegumenta double mutants is not mediated by ectopic AGAMOUS. We propose that LEUNIG and AINTEGUMENTA act together to control the expression of common target genes that regulate cell proliferation associated with marginal tissue development.     

Hormones talking: Does hormonal cross-talk shape the Arabidopsis gynoecium?

The proper development of fruits is important for the sexual reproduction and propagation of many plant species. The fruit of Arabidopsis derives from the fertilized gynoecium, which initiates at the center of the flower and obtains its final shape, size, and functional tissues through progressive stages of development. Hormones, specially auxins, play important roles in gynoecium and fruit patterning. Cytokinins, which act as counterparts to auxins in other plant tissues, have been studied more in the context of ovule formation and parthenocarpy. We recently studied the role of cytokinins in gynoecium and fruit patterning and found that they have more than one role during gynoecium and fruit patterning. We also compared the cytokinin response localization to the auxin response localization in these organs, and studied the effects of spraying cytokinins in young flowers of an auxin response line. In this addendum, we discuss further the implications of the observed results in the knowledge about the relationship between cytokinins and auxins at the gynoecium.     

SEUSS and AINTEGUMENTA mediate patterning and ovule initiation during gynoecium medial domain development

The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) gynoecium, the female floral reproductive structure, requires the action of genes that specify positional identities during its development to generate an organ competent for seed development and dispersal. Early in gynoecial development, patterning events divide the primordium into distinct domains that will give rise to specific tissues and organs. The medial domain of the gynoecium gives rise to the ovules, and several other structures critical for reproductive competence. Here we report a synergistic genetic interaction between seuss and aintegumenta mutants resulting in a complete loss of ovule initiation and a reduction of the structures derived from the medial domain. We show that patterning events are disrupted early in the development of the seuss aintegumenta gynoecia and we identify PHABULOSA (PHB), REVOLUTA, and CRABS CLAW (CRC) as potential downstream targets of SEUSS (SEU) and AINTEGUMENTA (ANT) regulation. Our genetic data suggest that SEU additionally functions in pathways that are partially redundant and parallel to PHB, CRC, and ANT. Thus, SEU and ANT are part of a complex and robust molecular system that coordinates patterning cues and cellular proliferation along the three positional axes of the developing gynoecium.     

Structure of floral galls of Byrsonima sericea (Malpighiaceae) induced by Bruggmanniella byrsonimae (Cecidomyiidae,Diptera) and their effects on host plants

Galls are anomalies in plant development from parasitic origin, and affect cellular differentiation or growth of plants. This parasite–plant interaction occurs in many environments and typically in vegetative organs of plants. The existence of galls in reproductive organs and their effects on the host plant are seldom described in the literature. In this paper, we present a novel study of galls in plants of the neotropical region. Galls of Bruggmmaniella byrsonimae develop in the flower buds of Byrsonima sericea DC. (Malpighiaceae) and affect development of the reproductive organs and the reproductive effort of these plants. The sepals and petals show hypertrophy of parenchyma tissues after differentiation, and the stamens exhibit degeneration of the sporogenic tissue. The gynoecium is not entirely developed; ovary and ovules are often absent. Changes in vascular tissues are also frequent, which may indicate high demand for nutrient resources by the new tissues initiated by the larva. We compared the amount of inflorescences, galls and fruits to evaluate possible effects on host reproduction. The results suggest that the Cecidomyiidae galls in flower organs affect fruit set and the reproductive success of B. sericea.     

植物有性生殖对温度胁迫反应的研究进展

开花植物的有性生殖阶段对温度胁迫高度敏感,高温热害和低温冷害都会对这一过程造成严重影响。本文全面总结了温度胁迫对作物有性生殖的影响,明确花粉发育过程是有性生殖过程中对温度胁迫最敏感的时期;转录组和蛋白质组的研究结果表明,蛋白激酶、热激转录因子、热休克蛋白等可能参与花粉发育期对热胁迫的信号转导。理解植物在有性生殖发育阶段如何适应温度胁迫的机理,为遗传育种实践中筛选对温度耐受的作物品种提供指导,也为基因工程选育对温度耐受的品种提供可能。     

Sugar and hormone connections

Sugars modulate many vital processes that are also controlled by hormones during plant growth and development. Characterization of sugar-signalling mutants in Arabidopsis has unravelled a complex signalling network that links sugar responses to two plant stress hormones--abscisic acid and ethylene--in opposite ways. Recent molecular analyses have revealed direct, extensive glucose control of abscisic acid biosynthesis and signalling genes that partially antagonizes ethylene signalling during seedling development under light. Glucose and abscisic acid promote growth at low concentrations but act synergistically to inhibit growth at high concentrations. The effects of sugar and osmotic stress on morphogenesis and gene expression are distinct. The plasticity of plant growth and development are exemplified by the complex interplay of sugar and hormone signalling.     

Pollen development at high temperature and role of carbon and nitrogen metabolites

Fruit and seed crop production heavily relies on successful stigma pollination, pollen tube growth, and fertilization of female gametes. These processes depend on production of viable pollen grains, a process sensitive to high‐temperature stress. Therefore, rising global temperatures threaten worldwide crop production. Close observation of plant development shows that high‐temperature stress causes morpho‐anatomical changes in male reproductive tissues that contribute to reproductive failure. These changes include early tapetum degradation, anther indehiscence, and deformity of pollen grains, all of which are contributing factors to pollen fertility. At the molecular level, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulate when plants are subjected to high temperatures. ROS is a signalling molecule that can be beneficial or detrimental for plant cells depending on its balance with the endogenous cellular antioxidant system. Many metabolites have been linked with ROS over the years acting as direct scavengers or molecular stabilizers that promote antioxidant enzyme activity. This review highlights recent advances in research on anther and pollen development and how these might explain the aberrations seen during high‐temperature stress; recent work on the role of nitrogen and carbon metabolites in anther and pollen development is discussed including their potential role at high temperature.     

Translating auxin responses into ovules,seeds and yield: Insight from Arabidopsis and the cereals

Grain production in cereal crops depends on the stable formation of male and female gametes in the flower.In most angiosperms, the female gamete is produced from a germline located deep within the ovary, protected by several layers of maternal tissue, including the ovary wall,ovule integuments and nucellus. In the field, germline formation and floret fertility are major determinants of yield potential, contributing to traits such as seed number,weight and size. As such, stimuli affecting the timing and duration of reproductive phases, as well as the viability,size and number of cells within reproductive organs can significantly impact yield. One key stimulant is the phytohormone auxin, which influences growth and morphogenesis of female tissues during gynoecium development, gametophyte formation, and endosperm cellularization. In this review we consider the role of the auxin signaling pathway during ovule and seed development, first in the context of Arabidopsis and then in the cereals. We summarize the gene families involved and highlight distinct expression patterns that suggest a range of roles in reproductive cell specification and fate. This is discussed in terms of seed production and how targeted modification of different tissues might facilitate improvements.     

DELLA蛋白在被子植物有性生殖中的作用

DELLA蛋白是植物生长发育过程中响应赤霉素(GA)应答途径的关键调控因子, 主要行使转录调控因子的功能, 几乎参与了植物生长发育的各个重要过程。已有的研究表明, DELLA蛋白在被子植物的雄性生殖器官、雌性生殖器官和胚胎等组织中均有表达, 在植物有性生殖过程中起着极其重要的作用。该文综述了DELLA蛋白的分子结构、特性及其在植物有性生殖过程中的表达与功能, 并讨论了现存的问题及研究思路。     

A burst of plant NADPH oxidases

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules able to damage cellular components but they also act as cell signalling elements. ROS are produced by many different enzymatic systems. Plant NADPH oxidases, also known as respiratory burst oxidase homologues (RBOHs), are the most thoroughly studied enzymatic ROS-generating systems and our understanding of their involvement in various plant processes has increased considerably in recent years. In this review we discuss their roles as ROS producers during cell growth, plant development and plant response to abiotic environmental constraints and biotic interactions, both pathogenic and symbiotic. This broad range of functions suggests that RBOHs may serve as important molecular 'hubs' during ROS-mediated signalling in plants.     

Reproductive water supply is prioritized during drought in tomato

Reproductive success largely defines the fitness of plant species. Understanding how heat and drought affect plant reproduction is thus key to predicting future plant fitness under rising global temperatures. Recent work suggests reproductive tissues are highly vulnerable to water stress in perennial plants where reproductive sacrifice could preserve plant survival. However, most crop species are annuals where such a strategy would theoretically reduce fitness. We examined the reproductive strategy of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum var. Rheinlands Ruhm) to determine whether water supply to fruits is prioritized above vegetative tissues during drought. Using optical methods, we mapped xylem cavitation and tissue shrinkage in vegetative and reproductive organs during dehydration to determine the priority of water flow under acute water stress. Stems and peduncles of tomato showed significantly greater xylem cavitation resistance than leaves. This maintenance of intact water supply enabled tomato fruit to continue to expand during acute water stress, utilizing xylem water made available by tissue collapse and early cavitation of leaves. Here, tomato plants prioritize water supply to reproductive tissues, maintaining fruit development under drought conditions. These results emphasize the critical role of water transport in shaping life history and suggest a broad relevance of hydraulic prioritization in plant ecology.     

Calmodulin7: recent insights into emerging roles in plant development and stress

Key message

The developmental stage of anther development is generally more sensitive to abiotic stress than other stages of growth. Specific ROS levels, plant hormones and carbohydrate metabolism are disturbed in anthers subjected to abiotic stresses.

Abstract

As sessile organisms, plants are often challenged to multiple extreme abiotic stresses, such as drought, heat, cold, salinity and metal stresses in the field, which reduce plant growth, productivity and yield. The development of reproductive stage is more susceptible to abiotic stresses than the vegetative stage. Anther, the male reproductive organ that generate pollen grains, is more sensitive to abiotic stresses than female organs. Abiotic stresses affect all the processes of anther development, including tapetum development and degradation, microsporogenesis and pollen development, anther dehiscence, and filament elongation. In addition, abiotic stresses significantly interrupt phytohormone, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, alter reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis in anthers, which are strongly responsible for the loss of pollen fertility. At present, the precise molecular mechanisms of anther development under adverse abiotic stresses are still not fully understood. Therefore, more emphasis should be given to understand molecular control of anther development during abiotic stresses to engineer crops with better crop yield.

     

Intraspecific variation in sex allocation in hermaphroditic Plantago coronopus (L.)

Models for sex allocation assume that increased expenditure of resources on male function decreases the resources available for female function. Under some circumstances, a negative genetic correlation between investment in stamens and investment in ovules or seeds is expected. Moreover, if fitness returns for investment in male and female function are different with respect to size, sex allocation theory predicts size‐specific gender changes. We studied sex allocation and genetic variation for investment in stamens, ovules and seeds at both the flower and the plant level in a Dutch population of the wind‐pollinated and predominantly outcrossing Plantago coronopus. Data on biomass of floral structures, stamens, ovules, seedset and seedweight were used to calculate the average proportion of reproductive allocation invested in male function. Genetic variation and (genetic) correlations were estimated from the greenhouse‐grown progeny of maternal families, raised at two nutrient levels. The proportion of reproductive biomass invested in male function was high at flowering (0.86 at both nutrient levels) and much lower at fruiting (0.30 and 0.40 for the high and low nutrient treatment, respectively). Androecium and gynoecium mass exhibited moderately high levels of genetic variance, with broad‐sense heritabilities varying from 0.35 to 0.56. For seedweight no genetic variation was detected. Significant among‐family variation was also detected for the proportion of resources invested in male function at flowering, but not at fruiting. Phenotypic and broad‐sense genetic correlations between androecium and gynoecium mass were positive. Even after adjusting for plant size, as a measure of resource acquisition, maternal families that invested more biomass in the androecium also invested more in the gynoecium. This is consistent with the hypothesis that genetic variation for resource acquisition may in part be responsible for the overall lack of a negative correlation between male and female function. Larger plants had a more female‐biased allocation pattern, brought about by an increase in seedset and seedweight, whereas stamen biomass did not differ between small and large plants. These results are discussed in relation to size‐dependent sex allocation theory (SDS). Our results indicate that the studied population harboured substantial genetic variation for reproductive characters.     

Inception of maleness: auxin contribution to flower masculinization in the dioecious cactus Opuntia stenopetala

In Opuntia stenopetala, flowers initiate as hermaphrodite; however, at maturity, only the stamens in male flowers and the gynoecium in female flowers become functional. At early developmental stages, growth and morphogenesis of the gynoecium in male flowers cease, forming a short style lacking stigmatic tissue at maturity. Here, an analysis of the masculinization process of this species and its relationship with auxin metabolism during gynoecium morphogenesis is presented. Histological analysis and scanning electron microscopy were performed; auxin levels were immunoanalyzed and exogenous auxin was applied to developing gynoecia. Male flower style-tissue patterning revealed morphological defects in the vascular bundles, stylar canal, and transmitting tissue. These features are similar to those observed in Arabidopsis thaliana mutant plants affected in auxin transport, metabolism, or signaling. Notably, when comparing auxin levels between male and female gynoecia from O. stenopetala at an early developmental stage, we found that they were particularly low in the male gynoecium. Consequently, exogenous auxin application on male gynoecia partially restored the defects of gynoecium development. We therefore hypothesize that, the arrest in male flower gynoecia patterning could be related to altered auxin homeostasis; alternatively, the addition of auxin could compensate for the lack of another unknown factor affecting male flower gynoecium development.