Secreted frizzled related protein 1 (Sfrp1) and Wnt signaling in innervated and denervated skeletal muscle

Wnts are secreted proteins with functions in differentiation, development and cell proliferation. Wnt signaling has also been implicated in neuromuscular junction formation and may function in synaptic plasticity in the adult as well. Secreted frizzled-related proteins (Sfrps) such as Sfrp1 can function as inhibitors of Wnt signaling. In the present study a potential role of Wnt signaling in denervation was examined by comparing the expression levels of Sfrp1 and key proteins in the canonical Wnt pathway, Dishevelled, glycogen synthase kinase 3β and β-catenin, in innervated and denervated rodent skeletal muscle. Sfrp1 mRNA and immunoreactivity were found to be up-regulated in mouse hemidiaphragm muscle following denervation. Immunoreactivity, detected by Western blots, and mRNA, detected by Northern blots, were both expressed in extrasynaptic as well as perisynaptic parts of the denervated muscle. Immunoreactivity on tissue sections was, however, found to be concentrated postsynaptically at neuromuscular junctions. Using β-catenin levels as a readout for canonical Wnt signaling no evidence for decreased canonical Wnt signaling was obtained in denervated muscle. A role for Sfrp1 in denervated muscle, other than interfering with canonical Wnt signaling, is discussed.     

Leucine-rich amelogenin peptide induces osteogenesis by activation of the Wnt pathway

We previously showed that one of the amelogenin splicing isoforms, Leucine-rich amelogenin peptide (LRAP), induced osteogenic differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells; however, the signaling pathway(s) activated by LRAP remained unknown. Here, we demonstrated that the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling is activated upon LRAP treatment, as evidenced by elevated β-catenin level and increased Wnt reporter gene activity. Furthermore, a specific Wnt inhibitor sFRP-1 completely blocks the LRAP-mediated Wnt signaling. However, exogenous recombinant Wnt3a alone was less effective at osteogenic induction of mouse ES cells in comparison to LRAP. Using a quantitative real-time PCR array, we discovered that LRAP treatment up-regulated the expression of Wnt agonists and down-regulated the expression of Wnt antagonists. We conclude that LRAP activates the canonical Wnt signaling pathway to induce osteogenic differentiation of mouse ES cells through the concerted regulation of Wnt agonists and antagonists.     

Fuz regulates craniofacial development through tissue specific responses to signaling factors

The planar cell polarity effector gene Fuz regulates ciliogenesis and Fuz loss of function studies reveal an array of embryonic phenotypes. However, cilia defects can affect many signaling pathways and, in humans, cilia defects underlie several craniofacial anomalies. To address this, we analyzed the craniofacial phenotype and signaling responses of the Fuz(-/-) mice. We demonstrate a unique role for Fuz in regulating both Hedgehog (Hh) and Wnt/β-catenin signaling during craniofacial development. Fuz expression first appears in the dorsal tissues and later in ventral tissues and craniofacial regions during embryonic development coincident with cilia development. The Fuz(-/-) mice exhibit severe craniofacial deformities including anophthalmia, agenesis of the tongue and incisors, a hypoplastic mandible, cleft palate, ossification/skeletal defects and hyperplastic malformed Meckel's cartilage. Hh signaling is down-regulated in the Fuz null mice, while canonical Wnt signaling is up-regulated revealing the antagonistic relationship of these two pathways. Meckel's cartilage is expanded in the Fuz(-/-) mice due to increased cell proliferation associated with the up-regulation of Wnt canonical target genes and decreased non-canonical pathway genes. Interestingly, cilia development was decreased in the mandible mesenchyme of Fuz null mice, suggesting that cilia may antagonize Wnt signaling in this tissue. Furthermore, expression of Fuz decreased expression of Wnt pathway genes as well as a Wnt-dependent reporter. Finally, chromatin IP experiments demonstrate that β-catenin/TCF-binding directly regulates Fuz expression. These data demonstrate a new model for coordination of Hh and Wnt signaling and reveal a Fuz-dependent negative feedback loop controlling Wnt/β-catenin signaling.     

Daam2 is required for dorsal patterning via modulation of canonical Wnt signaling in the developing spinal cord

The Daam family of proteins consists of Daam1 and Daam2. Although Daam1 participates in noncanonical Wnt signaling during gastrulation, Daam2 function remains completely uncharacterized. Here we describe the role of Daam2 in canonical Wnt signal transduction during spinal cord development. Loss-of-function studies revealed that Daam2 is required for dorsal progenitor identities and canonical Wnt signaling. These phenotypes are rescued by β-catenin, demonstrating that Daam2 functions in dorsal patterning through the canonical Wnt pathway. Complementary gain-of-function studies demonstrate that Daam2 amplifies Wnt signaling by potentiating ligand activation. Biochemical examination found that Daam2 association with Dvl3 is required for Wnt activity and dorsal patterning. Moreover, Daam2 stabilizes Dvl3/Axin2 binding, resulting in enhanced intracellular assembly of Dvl3/Axin2 complexes. These studies demonstrate that Daam2 modulates the formation of Wnt receptor complexes, revealing new insight into the functional diversity of Daam proteins and how canonical Wnt signaling contributes to pattern formation in the developing spinal cord.     

β-catenin-dependent Wnt signaling in C. elegans: teaching an old dog a new trick

Wnt signaling is an evolutionarily ancient pathway used to regulate many events during metazoan development. Genetic results from Caenorhabditis elegans more than a dozen years ago suggested that Wnt signaling in this nematode worm might be different than in vertebrates and Drosophila: the worm had a small number of Wnts, too many β-catenins, and some Wnt pathway components functioned in an opposite manner than in other species. Work over the ensuing years has clarified that C. elegans does possess a canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway similar to that in other metazoans, but that the majority of Wnt signaling in this species may proceed via a variant Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway that uses some new components (mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling enzymes), and in which some conserved pathway components (β-catenin, T-cell factor [TCF]) are used in new and interesting ways. This review summarizes our current understanding of the canonical and novel TCF/β-catenin-dependent signaling pathways in C. elegans.     

Polyethylenimine-cationized β-catenin protein transduction activates the Wnt canonical signaling pathway more effectively than cationic lipid-based transduction

The Wnt canonical signaling pathway is essential for the early development of eukaryotic organisms and plays a key role in cell proliferation, differentiation, and oncogenesis. Moreover, the Wnt canonical signaling pathway contributes to the self-renewal of mouse hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Here, we demonstrate artificial activation of the Wnt canonical signaling pathway by β-catenin protein transduction. Constitutively active β-catenin protein was introduced into human embryonic kidney HEK-293 cells using a polyethylenimine (PEI) cationization method, or with the BioPORTER protein transduction reagent. We have previously shown that modification with PEI effectively causes proteins to be internalized by living mammalian cells. PEI-cationized, constitutively active β-catenin protein was added to HEK-293 cells, and induction of several Wnt/β-catenin target genes was detected by real-time PCR. However, using BioPORTER to introduce active β-catenin did not activate the Wnt canonical signaling pathway. Introduction of eGFPNuc (enhanced green fluorescent protein variant containing a nuclear localization signal) into HEK-293 cells using the BioPORTER reagent caused significant cell death, as determined by propidium iodide staining. In contrast, the PEI-modified eGFPNuc did not impair survival of HEK-293 cells. These results indicate that the Wnt canonical signaling pathway could be successfully activated by transduction of PEI-cationized active β-catenin, and the PEI-cationization method is an effective and safe technology for protein transduction into mammalian cells.     

Wnt signal transduction pathways

The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and evolutionarily conserved pathway that regulates crucial aspects of cell fate determination, cell migration, cell polarity, neural patterning and organogenesis during embryonic development. The Wnts are secreted glycoproteins and comprise a large family of nineteen proteins in humans hinting to a daunting complexity of signaling regulation, function and biological output. To date major signaling branches downstream of the Fz receptor have been identified including a canonical or Wnt/β-catenin dependent pathway and the non-canonical or β-catenin-independent pathway which can be further divided into the Planar Cell Polarity and the Wnt/Ca²⁺ pathways, and these branches are being actively dissected at the molecular and biochemical levels. In this review, we will summarize the most recent advances in our understanding of these Wnt signaling pathways and the role of these pathways in regulating key events during embryonic patterning and morphogenesis.Key words: Wnt, frizzled, dishevelled, canonical, non-canonical, β-catenin, Planar Cell Polarity     

NMDA受体的活化调节原代皮层神经元的Wnt/β-catenin信号通路

经典的Wnt/β-catenin信号通路在中枢神经系统突触形成和功能中发挥重要的调节作用。作为兴奋性神经递质的谷氨酸,与其受体结合,参与许多信号调节活动。为了探讨NMDA受体活化对Wnt/β-catenin信号通路的作用,该文利用18 d的C57小鼠胚胎培养皮层神经元（离体10 d）,用10μmol/L谷氨酸钠（monosodium glutamate,MSG）和50μmol/L N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸（NMDA）处理细胞,通过蛋白免疫印迹技术或者细胞免疫荧光染色分析Wnt/β-catenin信号通路关键成员。结果发现,NMDA受体的活化能使GSK-3β的Ser9位磷酸化水平增加,活性被抑制,胞浆内β-catenin蛋白降解减少,入核增加,激活下游基因表达。这些结果提示,NMDA受体激活能够上调Wnt/β-catenin信号通路。     

Lentiviral Modulation of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Affects In Vivo LTP

Wnt signaling is involved in hippocampal development and synaptogenesis. Numerous recent studies have been focused on the role of Wnt ligands in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Inhibitors and activators of canonical Wnt signaling were demonstrated to decrease or increase, respectively, in vitro long-term potentiation (LTP) maintenance in hippocampal slices (Chen et al. in J Biol Chem 281:11910–11916, 2006; Vargas et al. in J Neurosci 34:2191–2202, 2014, Vargas et al. in Exp Neurol 264:14–25, 2015). Using lentiviral approach to down- and up-regulate the canonical Wnt signaling, we explored whether Wnt/β-catenin signaling is critical for the in vivo LTP. Chronic suppression of Wnt signaling induced an impairment of in vivo LTP expression 14 days after lentiviral suspension injection, while overexpression of Wnt3 was associated with a transient enhancement of in vivo LTP magnitude. Both effects were related to the early phase LTP and did not affect LTP maintenance. A loss-of-function study demonstrated decreased initial paired pulse facilitation ratio, β-catenin, and phGSK-3β levels. A gain-of-function study revealed not only an increase in PSD-95, β-catenin, and Cyclin D1 protein levels, but also a reduced phGSK-3β level and enhanced GSK-3β kinase activity. These results suggest a presynaptic dysfunction predominantly underlying LTP impairment while postsynaptic modifications are primarily involved in transient LTP amplification. This study is the first demonstration of the involvement of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in synaptic plasticity regulation in an in vivo LTP model.     

2-O-sulfotransferase regulates Wnt signaling, cell adhesion and cell cycle during zebrafish epiboly

O-sulfotransferases modify heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) by catalyzing the transfer of a sulfate to a specific position on heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains. Although the roles of specific HSPG modifications have been described in cell culture and invertebrates, little is known about their functions or abilities to modulate specific cell signaling pathways in vertebrate development. Here, we report that 2-O-sulfotransferase (2-OST) is an essential component of canonical Wnt signaling in zebrafish development. 2-OST-deficient embryos have reduced GAG chain sulfation and are refractory to exogenous Wnt8 overexpression. Embryos in which maternally encoded 2-OST is knocked down have normal activation of several zygotic mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm patterning genes, but have decreased deep cell adhesion and fail to initiate epiboly, which can be rescued by re-expression of 2-OST protein. Reduced cell adhesion and altered cell cycle regulation in 2-OST-deficient embryos are associated with decreased β-catenin and E-cadherin protein levels at cell junctions, and these defects can be rescued by reactivation of the intracellular Wnt pathway, utilizing stabilized β-catenin or dominant-negative Gsk3, but not by overexpression of Wnt8 ligand. Together, these results indicate that 2-OST functions within the Wnt pathway, downstream of Wnt ligand signaling and upstream of Gsk3β and β-catenin intracellular localization and function.     

Wnt/Ca2+ signaling pathway: a brief overview

The non-canonical Wnt/Ca(2+) signaling cascade is less characterized than their canonical counterpart, the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. The non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways are diverse, defined as planer cell polarity pathway, Wnt-RAP1 signaling pathway, Wnt-Ror2 signaling pathway, Wnt-PKA pathway, Wnt-GSK3MT pathway, Wnt-aPKC pathway, Wnt-RYK pathway, Wnt-mTOR pathway, and Wnt/calcium signaling pathway. All these pathways exhibit a considerable degree of overlap between them. The Wnt/Ca(2+) signaling pathway was deciphered as a crucial mediator in development. However, now there is substantial evidence that the signaling cascade is involved in many other molecular phenomena. Many aspects of Wnt/Ca(2+) pathway are yet enigmatic. This review will give a brief overview of the fundamental and evolving concepts of the Wnt/Ca(2+) signaling pathway.     

The roles of canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling in human de-differentiated articular chondrocytes

Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent form of arthritis in the world and it is becoming a major public health problem. Osteoarthritic chondrocytes undergo morphological and biochemical changes that lead to de-differentiation. The involvement of signaling pathways, such as the Wnt pathway, during cartilage pathology has been reported. Wnt signaling regulates critical biological processes. Wnt signals are transduced through at least three intracellular signaling pathways including the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway, the Wnt/Ca2 + pathway and the Wnt/planar cell polarity pathway. We investigated the involvement of the Wnt canonical and non-canonical pathways in human articular chondrocyte de-differentiation in vitro. Human articular chondrocytes were cultured through four passages with no treatment, or with sFRP3 treatment, an inhibitor of Wnt pathways, or with DKK1 treatment, an inhibitor of the canonical pathway. Chondrocyte-secreted markers and Wnt pathway components were analyzed using western blotting and qPCR. Inhibition of the Wnt pathway showed that the canonical Wnt signaling probably is responsible for inhibition of collagen II expression, activation of metalloproteinase 13 expression and regulation of Wnt7a and c-jun expression during chondrocyte de-differentiation in vitro. Our results also suggest that expressions of eNOS, Wnt5a and cyclinE1 are regulated by non-canonical Wnt signaling.     

Dishevelled: The hub of Wnt signaling

Wnt signaling controls a variety of developmental and homeostatic events. As a key component of Wnt signaling, Dishevelled (Dvl/Dsh) protein relays Wnt signals from receptors to downstream effectors. In the canonical Wnt pathway that depends on the nuclear translocation of β-catenin, Dvl is recruited by the receptor Frizzled and prevents the constitutive destruction of cytosolic β-catenin. In the non-canonical Wnt pathways such as Wnt-Frizzled/PCP (planar cell polarity) signaling, Dvl signals via the Daam1-RhoA axis and the Rac1 axis. In addition, Dvl plays important roles in Wnt-GSK3β-microtubule signaling, Wnt-calcium signaling, Wnt-RYK signaling, Wnt-atypical PKC signaling, etc. Dvl also functions to mediate receptor endocytosis. To fulfill its multifaceted functions, it is not surprising that Dvl associates with various kinds of proteins. Its activity is also modulated dynamically by phosphorylation, ubiquitination and degradation. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of Dvl functions in Wnt signal transduction and its biological functions in mouse development, and also discuss the molecular mechanisms of its actions.     

Wnt signaling is required for early development of zebrafish swimbladder

BACKGROUND: Wnt signaling plays critical roles in mammalian lung development. However, Wnt signaling in the development of the zebrafish swimbladder, which is considered as a counterpart of mammalian lungs, have not been explored. To investigate the potential conservation of signaling events in early development of the lung and swimbladder, we wish to address the question whether Wnt signaling plays a role in swimbladder development. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: For analysis of zebrafish swimbladder development, we first identified, by whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH), has2 as a mesenchymal marker, sox2 as the earliest epithelial marker, as well as hprt1l and elovl1a as the earliest mesothelial markers. We also demonstrated that genes encoding Wnt signaling members Wnt5b, Fz2, Fz7b, Lef1, Tcf3 were expressed in different layers of swimbladder. Then we utilized the heat-shock inducible transgenic lines hs:Dkk1-GFP and hs:ΔTcf-GFP to temporarily block canonical Wnt signaling. Inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling at various time points disturbed precursor cells specification, organization, anterioposterior patterning, and smooth muscle differentiation in all three tissue layers of swimbladder. These observations were also confirmed by using a chemical inhibitor (IWR-1) of Wnt signaling. In addition, we found that Hedgehog (Hh) signaling was activated by canonical Wnt signaling and imposed a negative feedback on the latter. SIGNIFICANCE/CONCLUSION: We first provided a new set of gene markers for the three tissue layers of swimbladder in zebrafish and demonstrated the expression of several key genes of Wnt signaling pathway in developing swimbladder. Our functional analysis data indicated that Wnt/β-catenin signaling is required for swimbladder early development and we also provided evidence for the crosstalk between Wnt and Hh signaling in early swimbladder development.     

Nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) proteins repress canonical Wnt signaling via its interaction with Dishevelled (Dvl) protein and participate in regulating neural progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation

The Ca(2+) signaling pathway appears to regulate the processes of the early development through its antagonism of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. However, the underlying mechanism is still poorly understood. Here, we show that nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT), a component of Ca(2+) signaling, interacts directly with Dishevelled (Dvl) in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. A dominant negative form of NFAT rescued the inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway triggered by the Ca(2+) signal. NFAT functioned downstream of β-catenin without interfering with its stability, but influencing the interaction of β-catenin with Dvl by its competitively binding to Dvl. Furthermore, we demonstrate that NFAT is a regulator in the proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitor cells by modulating canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in the neural tube of chick embryo. Our findings suggest that NFAT negatively regulates canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling by binding to Dvl, thereby participating in vertebrate neurogenesis.