α-Synuclein stimulates a dopamine transporter-dependent chloride current and modulates the activity of the transporter

Dysregulation of dopamine (DA) homeostasis is implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, drug addiction, and neuropsychiatric disorders. The neuronal plasma membrane dopamine transporter (DAT) is essential for the maintenance of DA homeostasis in the brain. α-Synuclein is a 140-amino acid protein that forms a stable complex with DAT and is linked to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disease. To elucidate the potential functional consequences of DAT/α-synuclein interaction, we explored α-synuclein modulation of DAT activity in midbrain dopaminergic neurons obtained from TH::RFP mice, immortalized DA neurons, and a heterologous system expressing DAT. We used dual pipette whole cell patch clamp recording to measure the DAT-mediated current before and after dialysis of recombinant α-synuclein into immortalized DA neurons. Our data suggest that intracellular α-synuclein induces a Na+ independent but Cl--sensitive inward current in DAT-expressing cells. This current is blocked by DAT blocker GBR12935 and is absent when heat-inactivated α-synuclein is dialyzed into these cells. The functional consequence of this interaction on DAT activity was further examined with real-time monitoring of transport function using a fluorescent substrate of DAT, 4-(4-(dimethylamino)styryl)-N-methylpyridinium (ASP+). Overexpression of α-synuclein in DAT-positive immortalized DA neurons and CHO cells expressing DAT decreased the magnitude and rate of DAT-mediated substrate uptake without a decrease in the initial binding of the substrate at the plasma membrane. Taken together our findings are consistent with the interpretation that DAT/α-synuclein interaction at the cell surface results in a DAT-dependent, Na+-insensitive, Cl-sensitive inward current with a decrease in substrate uptake, suggesting that DAT/α-synuclein interaction can modulate dopamine transmission and thus neuronal function.     

α-Synuclein misfolding and Parkinson's disease

Substantial evidence links α-synuclein, a small highly conserved presynaptic protein with unknown function, to both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). α-Synuclein has been identified as the major component of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, the characteristic proteinaceous deposits that are the hallmarks of PD. α-Synuclein is a typical intrinsically disordered protein, but can adopt a number of different conformational states depending on conditions and cofactors. These include the helical membrane-bound form, a partially-folded state that is a key intermediate in aggregation and fibrillation, various oligomeric species, and fibrillar and amorphous aggregates. The molecular basis of PD appears to be tightly coupled to the aggregation of α-synuclein and the factors that affect its conformation. This review examines the different aggregation states of α-synuclein, the molecular mechanism of its aggregation, and the influence of environmental and genetic factors on this process.     

α-Synuclein and neuronal cell death

Mutations in the DJ-1 gene have been linked to autosomal recessive familial Parkinson's disease. To understand the function of DJ-1, we determined the DJ-1 expression in both zebrafish and post mortem human brains. We found that DJ-1 was expressed early during zebrafish development and throughout adulthood. Knock down (KD) of DJ-1 by injection of morpholino did not cause dramatic morphologic alterations during development, and no loss of dopaminergic neurons was observed in embryos lacking DJ-1. However, DJ-1 KD embryos were more susceptible to programmed cell death. While a slight reduction in staining for islet-1 positive neurons was observed in both DJ-1 KD and H₂O₂ treated embryos, the number of apoptotic cells was significantly increased in both KD and H₂O₂ treated embryos. Interestingly, DJ-1 expression was increased in brains of zebrafish under conditions of oxidative stress, indicating that DJ-1 is a part of stress-responsive machinery. Since oxidative stress is one of the major contributors to the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), we also examined DJ-1 expression in AD brains. Using DJ-1 specific antibodies, we failed to detect a robust staining of DJ-1 in brain tissues from control subjects. However, DJ-1 immunoreactivity was detected in hippocampal pyramidal neurons and astrocytes of AD brains. Therefore, our results strongly suggest that DJ-1 expression is not necessary during zebrafish development but can be induced in zebrafish exposed to oxidative stress and is present in human AD brains.     

α-Synuclein and Neuronal Cell Death

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting ～1 % of people over the age of 65. Neuropathological hallmarks of PD are prominent loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra and formation of intraneuronal protein inclusions termed Lewy bodies, composed mainly of α-synuclein (αSyn). Missense mutations in αSyn gene giving rise to production of degradation-resistant mutant proteins or multiplication of wild-type αSyn gene allele can cause rare inherited forms of PD. Therefore, the existence of abnormally high amount of αSyn protein is considered responsible for the DA neuronal death in PD. Normally, αSyn protein localizes to presynaptic terminals of neuronal cells, regulating the neurotransmitter release through the modulation of assembly of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor complex. On the other hand, of note, pathological examinations on the recipient patients of fetal nigral transplants provided a prion-like cell-to-cell transmission hypothesis for abnormal αSyn. The extracellular αSyn fibrils can internalize to the cells and enhance intracellular formation of protein inclusions, thereby reducing cell viability. These findings suggest that effective removal of abnormal species of αSyn in the extracellular space as well as intracellular compartments can be of therapeutic relevance. In this review, we will focus on αSyn-triggered neuronal cell death and provide possible disease-modifying therapies targeting abnormally accumulating αSyn.     

α-Synuclein Multimers Cluster Synaptic Vesicles and Attenuate Recycling

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α-Synuclein and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease

α-Synuclein (SNCA) is a substantive component of Lewy bodies, the pathological hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The discovery and subsequent derivation of its role in PD has led to a suprising but fruitful convergence of the fields of biochemistry and molecular genetics. In particular, the manipulation of the cell lines of a number of forms of familial PD has implicated SNCA in distinct and diverse biochemical pathways related to its pathogenesis. This current and rapidly evolving concept indicates PD is a disease in which interacting pathways of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired regulation of protein turnover interact to cause dopaminergic cell dysfunction and death. SNCA has a central role in these processes and manipulation of its expression, degradation and aggregation appear to be promising neuroprotective therapeutic targets.     

α-Synuclein in Extracellular Vesicles: Functional Implications and Diagnostic Opportunities

Fibrillar inclusions of intraneuronal α-synuclein can be detected in certain brain areas from patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other disorders with Lewy body pathology. These insoluble protein aggregates do not themselves appear to have a prominent neurotoxic effect, whereas various α-synuclein oligomers appear harmful. Although it is incompletely known how the prefibrillar species may be pathogenic, they have been detected both within and on the outside of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs), suggesting that such structures may mediate toxic α-synuclein propagation between neurons. Vesicular transfer of α-synuclein may thereby contribute to the hierarchical spreading of pathology seen in the PD brain. Although the regulation of α-synuclein release via EVs is not understood, data suggest that it may involve other PD-related molecules, such as LRRK2 and ATP13A2. Moreover, new evidence indicates that CNS-derived EVs in plasma have the potential to serve as biomarkers for diagnostic purposes. In a recent study, levels of α-synuclein were found to be increased in L1CAM-positive vesicles isolated from plasma of PD patients compared to healthy controls, and follow-up studies will reveal whether α-synuclein in EVs could be developed as a future disease biomarker. Preferentially, toxic prefibrillar α-synuclein oligomers should then be targeted as a biomarker—as evidence suggests that they reflect the disease process more closely than total α-synuclein content. In such studies, it will be essential to adopt stringent EV isolation protocols in order to avoid contamination from the abundant pool of free plasma α-synuclein in different aggregational states.     

α-Synuclein and Anti-α-Synuclein Antibodies in Parkinson’s Disease,Atypical Parkinson Syndromes,REM Sleep Behavior Disorder,and Healthy Controls

α-synuclein is thought to play a key role in Parkinson’s disease (PD) because it is the major protein in Lewy bodies, and because its gene mutations, duplication, and triplication are associated with early-onset PD. There are conflicting reports as to whether serum and plasma concentrations of α-synuclein and anti-α-synuclein antibodies differ between PD and control subjects. The objectives of this study were to compare the levels of α-synuclein and its antibodies between individuals with typical PD (n = 14), atypical Parkinson syndromes (n = 11), idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (n = 10), and healthy controls (n = 9), to assess the strength of association between these serum proteins, and to determine group sizes needed for a high probability (80% power) of detecting statistical significance for 25% or 50% differences between typical PD and control subjects for these measurements. Analysis of log-transformed data found no statistically significant differences between groups for either α-synuclein or its antibodies. The concentrations of these proteins were weakly correlated (Spearman rho = 0.16). In subjects with typical PD and atypical Parkinson syndromes, anti-α-synuclein antibody levels above 1.5 µg/ml were detected only in subjects with no more than four years of clinical disease. Power analysis indicated that 236 and 73 samples per group would be required for an 80% probability that 25% and 50% differences, respectively, in mean α-synuclein levels between typical PD and control subjects would be statistically significant; for anti-α-synuclein antibodies, 283 and 87 samples per group would be required. Our findings are consistent with those previous studies which suggested that serum concentrations of α-synuclein and its antibodies are not significantly altered in PD.     

α-Synuclein在脑缺血中的作用

α-Syn(α-Synuclein,SNAC)最初是从阿尔茨海默病患者大脑的淀粉样斑块中分离出来的一种蛋白质,在突触活动中扮演着重要的角色.α-Syn主要在脑中表达,研究发现其参与脑缺血损伤发生发展.在现有证据的基础上,该文简要介绍α-Syn的基本概念,并介绍α-Syn在脑缺血后的表达变化,重点探讨α-Syn在脑缺血中...     

Tritiated 9α-fluorocortisol metabolism and binding in rat kidney

Metabolism of 9α-fluorocortisol (9α-F) has been studied in rat kidney slices, homogenate, and in the isolated perfused kidney. These studies show that the rate of 9α-F metabolism varies depending upon the experimental conditions. The major metabolite formed, identified by mass spectrometry, is 20(ξ)-dihydro-9α-fluorocortisol. The kidney slice experiments show that only ³H-9α-F and none of the metabolites bind to cytosolic receptors. In competition experiments performed with tritiated and unlabeled 9α-fluorocortisol, aldosterone (A), dexamethasone (DM) and triamcinolone acetonide (TA), 9α-F was found to bind to mineralocorticoid receptors with a lower affinity than A but also to glucocorticoid receptors with a higher affinity than A. The Scatchard plot analysis indicated that ³H-9α-F is characterized by K_D: 8.6 × 10^?9M and N: 1.9 × 10^?13moles/mg of protein. In conclusion it is felt that 9α-F would not be a better “marker” than aldosterone for the renal mineralocorticoid receptors.     

α-Synuclein and Its A30P Mutant Affect Actin Cytoskeletal Structure and Dynamics

The function of α-synuclein, a soluble protein abundant in the brain and concentrated at presynaptic terminals, is still undefined. Yet, α-synuclein overexpression and the expression of its A30P mutant are associated with familial Parkinson''s disease. Working in cell-free conditions, in two cell lines as well as in primary neurons we demonstrate that α-synuclein and its A30P mutant have different effects on actin polymerization. Wild-type α-synuclein binds actin, slows down its polymerization and accelerates its depolymerization, probably by monomer sequestration; A30P mutant α-synuclein increases the rate of actin polymerization and disrupts the cytoskeleton during reassembly of actin filaments. Consequently, in cells expressing mutant α-synuclein, cytoskeleton-dependent processes, such as cell migration, are inhibited, while exo- and endocytic traffic is altered. In hippocampal neurons from mice carrying a deletion of the α-synuclein gene, electroporation of wild-type α-synuclein increases actin instability during remodeling, with growth of lamellipodia-like structures and apparent cell enlargement, whereas A30P α-synuclein induces discrete actin-rich foci during cytoskeleton reassembly. In conclusion, α-synuclein appears to play a major role in actin cytoskeletal dynamics and various aspects of microfilament function. Actin cytoskeletal disruption induced by the A30P mutant might alter various cellular processes and thereby play a role in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration.     

α-Synuclein oligomers pump it up!

Oligomeric forms of the Parkinson's disease‐causing protein α‐synuclein are suspected to mediate neurodegeneration, but the mechanisms are not understood. The present study of Shrivastava et al (2015) provides a fresh insight into this old mystery. α‐Synuclein oligomers are shown by a combination of top state‐of‐the‐art biochemical and super‐resolution microscopy methods to sequester the neuronal sodium–potassium pump. Such perturbation of ion currents would ultimately lead to Ca²⁺ excitotoxicity.     

α-Synuclein Oligomers Impair Neuronal Microtubule-Kinesin Interplay

Early α-synuclein (α-Syn)-induced alterations are neurite pathologies resulting in Lewy neurites. α-Syn oligomers are a toxic species in synucleinopathies and are suspected to cause neuritic pathology. To investigate how α-Syn oligomers may be linked to aberrant neurite pathology, we modeled different stages of α-Syn aggregation in vitro and investigated the interplay of α-Syn aggregates with proteins involved in axonal transport. The interaction of wild type α-Syn (WTS) and α-Syn variants (E57K, A30P, and aSyn(30–110)) with kinesin, tubulin, and the microtubule (MT)-associated proteins, MAP2 and Tau, is stronger for multimers than for monomers. WTS seeds but not α-Syn oligomers significantly and dose-dependently reduced Tau-promoted MT assembly in vitro. In contrast, MT gliding velocity across kinesin-coated surfaces was significantly decreased in the presence of α-Syn oligomers but not WTS seeds or fibrils (aSyn(30–110) multimers). In a human dopaminergic neuronal cell line, mild overexpression of the oligomerizing E57K α-Syn variant significantly impaired neurite network morphology without causing profound cell death. In accordance with these findings, MT stability, neuritic kinesin, and neuritic kinesin-dependent cargoes were significantly reduced by the presence of α-Syn oligomers. In summary, different α-Syn species act divergently on the axonal transport machinery. These findings provide new insights into α-Syn oligomer-driven neuritic pathology as one of the earliest events in synucleinopathies.     

Quantifying Interactions of β-Synuclein and γ-Synuclein with Model Membranes

The synucleins are a family of proteins involved in numerous neurodegenerative pathologies [α-synuclein and β-synuclein (βS)], as well as in various types of cancers [γ-synuclein (γS)]. While the connection between α-synuclein and Parkinson's disease is well established, recent evidence links point mutants of βS to dementia with Lewy bodies. Overexpression of γS has been associated with enhanced metastasis and cancer drug resistance. Despite their prevalence in such a variety of diseases, the native functions of the synucleins remain unclear. They have a lipid-binding motif in their N-terminal region, which suggests interactions with biological membranes in vivo. In this study, we used fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to monitor the binding properties of βS and γS to model membranes and to determine the free energy of the interactions. Our results show that the interactions are most strongly affected by the presence of both anionic lipids and bilayer curvature, while membrane fluidity plays a very minor role. Quantifying the lipid-binding properties of βS and γS provides additional insights into the underlying factors governing the protein-membrane interactions. Such insights not only are relevant to the native functions of these proteins but also highlight their contributions to pathological conditions that are either mediated or characterized by perturbations of these interactions.     

α-Synuclein promotes clathrin-mediated NMDA receptor endocytosis and attenuates NMDA-induced dopaminergic cell death

Abnormalities of α-synuclein (α-syn) and NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. However, how these proteins interact with each other has not been elucidated. Here, the effect of α-syn on NMDARs was investigated by examining the alterations of surface NMDAR NR1 subunits in MES23.5 dopaminergic cells transfected with the human α-syn gene as well as in cells treated with extracellularly added human α-syn. As demonstrated previously that α-syn can enter cells in a non-endocytic manner without being degraded by the cellular proteolytic systems, the extracellularly added α-syn entered the cytoplasm of MES23.5 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Both the α-syn-transfected cells and α-syn-treated cells exhibited increased intracellular α-syn levels and reduced surface NR1 without altering the total NR1. The α-syn-induced surface NR1 reduction was accompanied by suppression of NMDA-elicited intracellular Ca(2+) elevation and reductions of NMDA-induced caspase 3 activation and cell death, which was abolished by hypotonic shock and K(+) depletion, a procedure that blocks clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and by suppression of RAB5B expression with anti-RAB5B oligonucleotides. The data obtained provide evidence for the first time that α-syn may promote clathrin-mediated NMDAR endocytosis.     

α-Synuclein蛋白聚集状态与帕金森病形成

帕金森病是一种常见的老年神经退行性疾病,其致病机理复杂.其中α-synuclein基因是较早发现的与帕金森病相关的基因,其编码的α-synuclein蛋白是帕金森病神经元内出现的一种蛋白包涵体结构——路易体的主要组成成分.最近的研究结果显示,α-synuclein蛋白存在不同聚集状态间的转换,其中聚集过程中形成的寡聚体中间构象具有较强的细胞毒性,可能对帕金森病的发病过程有着重要作用;而且这种聚集状态的转换过程受到多种遗传学与细胞学因素的影响,从而在某种程度上反映了帕金森病发生形成的遗传学与细胞学机制.本文将对α-synuclein蛋白聚集状态转换特性及其在帕金森病发病过程中作用机制方面的研究进展作一综述．