The Nucleocapsid Protein of Human Coronavirus NL63

Human coronavirus (HCoV) NL63 was first described in 2004 and is associated with respiratory tract disease of varying severity. At the genetic and structural level, HCoV-NL63 is similar to other members of the Coronavirinae subfamily, especially human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E). Detailed analysis, however, reveals several unique features of the pathogen. The coronaviral nucleocapsid protein is abundantly present in infected cells. It is a multi-domain, multi-functional protein important for viral replication and a number of cellular processes. The aim of the present study was to characterize the HCoV-NL63 nucleocapsid protein. Biochemical analyses revealed that the protein shares characteristics with homologous proteins encoded in other coronaviral genomes, with the N-terminal domain responsible for nucleic acid binding and the C-terminal domain involved in protein oligomerization. Surprisingly, analysis of the subcellular localization of the N protein of HCoV-NL63 revealed that, differently than homologous proteins from other coronaviral species except for SARS-CoV, it is not present in the nucleus of infected or transfected cells. Furthermore, no significant alteration in cell cycle progression in cells expressing the protein was observed. This is in stark contrast with results obtained for other coronaviruses, except for the SARS-CoV.     

人冠状病毒NL63棘突蛋白的研究进展

20世纪60年代以前,人们普遍认为只有2种人冠状病毒(HCoV)HCoV-229E和HCoV-OC43感染人类,2002～2003年出现的由SARS-CoV引发的严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)的流行使人冠状病毒又一次成为研究的焦点,2004年又发现了一种新的人冠状病毒HCoV-NL63。在此,主要就HCoV-NL63,特别是其主要结构蛋白——棘突蛋白的研究进展做一简要综述。     

Characterization and Complete Genome Sequence of Human Coronavirus NL63 Isolated in China

Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) was first discovered in Amsterdam in 2004 and was identified as a new human respiratory coronavirus. We here report the first complete genome sequence of HCoV-NL63 strain CBJ 037 isolated in 2008 from a patient with bronchitis in Beijing, China.     

Human coronavirus NL63, a new respiratory virus

From the mid-1960s onwards, it was believed that only two human coronavirus species infect humans: HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43. Then, in 2003, a novel member of the coronavirus family was introduced into the human population: SARS-CoV, causing an aggressive lung disease. Fortunately, this virus was soon expelled from the human population, but it quickly became clear that the human coronavirus group contains more members then previously assumed, with HCoV-NL63 identified in 2004. Despite its recent discovery, ample results from HCoV-NL63 research have been described. We present an overview of the publications on this novel coronavirus.     

NL63冠状病毒木瓜样蛋白酶去泛素化酶活性和对宿主抗病毒天然免疫反应调节作用

引起人类呼吸道感染的冠状病毒已多达5种．冠状病毒与宿主相互作用决定了其致病性和免疫特性．冠状病毒感染后宿主会立即启动抗病毒天然免疫反应,而人类冠状病毒往往会编码特定蛋白逃逸或抑制宿主的天然免疫反应．NL63冠状病毒是一种新型人类冠状病毒,其非结构蛋白nsp3编码2个木瓜样蛋白酶(PLP)核心结构域PLP1和PLP2．前期研究发现,人类冠状病毒PLP2是一种病毒编码的去泛素化酶(DUB),但是对其DUB特性和功能还不清楚．研究发现,NL63冠状病毒PLP1和PLP2两个核心结构域中只有PLP2具有DUB活性,而且,PLP2的DUB活性对K48和K63连接的多聚泛素化修饰不表现明显特异性．同时,蛋白酶活性催化位点C1678和H1836突变后对其DUB活性有明显抑制作用,而蛋白酶活性催化位点D1849突变后对DUB活性无影响．其次,PLP2而非PLP1核心结构域能够明显抑制仙台病毒和重要信号蛋白(RIG-I、ERIS/STING/MITA)激活的干扰素表达,表明PLP2是一种冠状病毒编码的干扰素拮抗剂,而且PLP2的干扰素拮抗作用不完全依赖其蛋白酶活性．机制研究表明,PLP2能够与干扰素表达通路中的重要调节蛋白RIG-I和ERIS发生相互作用,通过对RIG-I和ERIS的去泛素化负调控宿主抗病毒天然免疫反应．此外,PLP2除利用DUB活性抑制干扰素表达外,很可能存在不依赖自身催化活性的其他组分共同抑制干扰素的产生．以上研究对阐明人类新发冠状病毒免疫和致病机理以及抗病毒药物研发具有重要参考价值．     

人冠状病毒NL63核壳蛋白和棘突蛋白的表达及其在血清学检测中的初步应用

目的:重组表达人冠状病毒NL63(HCoV-NL63)的核壳蛋白(N蛋白)及棘突蛋白(S蛋白),用于检测血清中的相应抗体。方法:用原核表达系统表达HCoV-NL63的N蛋白,建立检测N抗体的Werstern印迹法;用真核表达系统表达HCoV-NL63的S蛋白,建立检测S抗体的间接免疫荧光(IFA)法。结果:经Werstern印迹检测,重组S蛋白和N蛋白表达正确;初步建立了N蛋白纯化方法。利用建立的检测方法,检测了100份正常成人血清,总阳性率为81%。其中S抗体阳性率为66%,N抗体阳性率为38%,S抗体和N抗体均为阳性的占总数的22%,双抗体均为阴性的占总数的19%;S抗体的检出率明显高于N抗体。结论:重组HCoV-NL63N蛋白及S蛋白表达成功;S抗体和N抗体共同检测可获得较好的检测结果,减少漏检。     

人冠状病毒HCoV-NL63和HCoV-HKU1常规RT-PCR与实时荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法的建立及应用比较

分别设计HCoV-NL63和HCoV-HKU1特异的引物与荧光标记探针,并合成含靶基因的模板RNA,建立常规RT-PCR方法与实时荧光定量RT-PCR方法,对其灵敏性、特异性和可重复性以及用于临床样本的适用性等进行平行比较评价.结果表明:这两种方法皆可对HCoV-NL63或HCoV-HKU1进行特异性诊断,其中荧光定量RT-PCR方法检测灵敏度均可达10拷贝/25μL反应体积,不同批次重复检测结果间的变异系数均小于5%.上述方法应用于158份临床鼻咽拭子标本,其中荧光定量RT-PCR方法检出6份HCoV-NL63阳性标本,5份HCoV-HKU1阳性标本,而常规RT-PCR方法则分别检出HCoV-NL63阳性与HCoV-HKU1阳性各3份.对常规RT-PCR方法获得的阳性样品进行序列分析证实上述方法的可靠性.本实验成功建立了可用于临床标本检测的人冠状病毒HCoV-NL63和HCoV-HKU1常规RT-PCR方法与实时荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法,并初步证实荧光定量RT-PCR检测方法检出率明显高于常规RT-PCR方法,这为开展HCoV-NL63和HCoV-HKU1的流行监测及临床早期诊断提供了有效技术手段.     

北京地区人冠状病毒NL63 N和E蛋白基因序列及生物信息学分析

为了解北京地区新近发现的新型冠状病毒-人冠状病毒NL63(Human coronavirus NL63,HCoV-NL63)的N和E蛋白编码基因的特征,从经RT-PCR检测阳性的临床标本中扩增得到的HCoV-NL63 N蛋白和E蛋白编码基因序列,分别克隆至pCF-T和pUCm-T载体中并进行测序,同时运用生物信息学的方法,对北京HCoV-NL63阳性标本BJ8081 N和E蛋白编码基因的核苷酸和氨基酸序列与HCoV-NL63原型株及其他几种冠状病毒的N和E蛋白编码基因的核苷酸和氨基酸序列进行比较分析和种系进化分析;用SOPMA方法对BJ8081 N和E蛋白的二级结构进行了预测分析,并对N和E蛋白的其他生物学特性进行了预测分析.经序列比对分析发现,BJ8081 N蛋白氨基酸序列在78～85肽段(FYYLGTGP)内与所比较的其他冠状病毒N蛋白相应位置的氨基酸序列完全相同,提示此区段可能为包括HCoV-NL63在内的所有冠状病毒N蛋白的保守区域.在BJ8081 N蛋白氨基酸序列的100～121肽段可能是和基因组RNA相结合的位置;在BJ8081 E蛋白的15～37位氨基酸可能是E蛋白的跨膜区域.研究对BJ8081 N蛋白和E蛋白的编码基因序列进行了测定和生物信息学分析,为今后对HCoV-NL63的进一步深入研究奠定了基础.     

新型人冠状病毒HCoV—NL63和HCoV-HKU1的研究进展

多年来,人们公认的人冠状病毒包括HCoV-229E和HCoV-0C43等2株。但2002-2003年,由一种新型人冠状病毒SARS-CoV所引发的全球范围的严重急性呼吸综合征（SARS）的流行,使多国蒙受巨大损失,由此,冠状病毒又成为研究的焦点。随着分子生物学技术的发展,2004-2005年,又发现了2种新型人冠状病毒HCoV-NL63和HCoV-HKU1。在此,就这2种病毒的发现、流行情况,及其与疾病的相关性做一简要综述。     

Systematic assembly of a full-length infectious clone of human coronavirus NL63

Historically, coronaviruses were predominantly associated with mild upper respiratory disease in humans. More recently, three novel coronaviruses associated with severe human respiratory disease were found, including (i) the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, associated with a significant atypical pneumonia and 10% mortality; (ii) HKU-1, associated with chronic pulmonary disease; and (iii) NL63, associated with both upper and lower respiratory tract disease in children and adults worldwide. These discoveries establish coronaviruses as important human pathogens and underscore the need for continued research toward the development of platforms that will enable genetic manipulation of the viral genome, allowing for rapid and rational development and testing of candidate vaccines, vaccine vectors, and therapeutics. In this report, we describe a reverse genetics system for NL63, whereby five contiguous cDNAs that span the entire genome were used to generate a full-length cDNA. Recombinant NL63 viruses which contained the expected marker mutations replicated as efficiently as the wild-type NL63 virus. In addition, we engineered the heterologous green fluorescent protein gene in place of open reading frame 3 (ORF3) of the NL63 clone, simultaneously creating a unique marker for NL63 infection and demonstrating that the ORF3 protein product is nonessential for the replication of NL63 in cell culture. The availability of the NL63 and NL63gfp clones and recombinant viruses provides powerful tools that will help advance our understanding of this important human pathogen.     

SARS冠状病毒的起源研究进展

SARS冠状病毒（SARS-CoV）是一种新现病毒,可感染多种动物,果子狸是人类sARs-CoV重要的动物宿主之一,是已知较理想的实验动物模型。遗传因素在SARS-CoV的出现过程中起重要作用,它很可能是哺乳动物和鸟类冠状病毒之间重组产生的新物种,但发生基因重组不是SARS在人群中暴发的原因。     

Mosaic structure of human coronavirus NL63, one thousand years of evolution

Before the SARS outbreak only two human coronaviruses (HCoV) were known: HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E. With the discovery of SARS-CoV in 2003, a third family member was identified. Soon thereafter, we described the fourth human coronavirus (HCoV-NL63), a virus that has spread worldwide and is associated with croup in children. We report here the complete genome sequence of two HCoV-NL63 clinical isolates, designated Amsterdam 57 and Amsterdam 496. The genomes are 27,538 and 27,550 nucleotides long, respectively, and share the same genome organization. We identified two variable regions, one within the 1a and one within the S gene, whereas the 1b and N genes were most conserved. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that HCoV-NL63 genomes have a mosaic structure with multiple recombination sites. Additionally, employing three different algorithms, we assessed the evolutionary rate for the S gene of group Ib coronaviruses to be approximately 3 x 10(-4) substitutions per site per year. Using this evolutionary rate we determined that HCoV-NL63 diverged in the 11th century from its closest relative HCoV-229E.     

Proteolytic processing and deubiquitinating activity of papain-like proteases of human coronavirus NL63

Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63), a common human respiratory pathogen, is associated with both upper and lower respiratory tract disease in children and adults. Currently, no antiviral drugs are available to treat CoV infections; thus, potential drug targets need to be identified and characterized. Here, we identify HCoV-NL63 replicase gene products and characterize two viral papain-like proteases (PLPs), PLP1 and PLP2, which process the viral replicase polyprotein. We generated polyclonal antisera directed against two of the predicted replicase nonstructural proteins (nsp3 and nsp4) and detected replicase proteins from HCoV-NL63-infected LLC-MK2 cells by immunofluorescence, immunoprecipitation, and Western blot assays. We found that HCoV-NL63 replicase products can be detected at 24 h postinfection and that these proteins accumulate in perinuclear sites, consistent with membrane-associated replication complexes. To determine which viral proteases are responsible for processing these products, we generated constructs representing the amino-terminal end of the HCoV-NL63 replicase gene and established protease cis-cleavage assays. We found that PLP1 processes cleavage site 1 to release nsp1, whereas PLP2 is responsible for processing both cleavage sites 2 and 3 to release nsp2 and nsp3. We expressed and purified PLP2 and used a peptide-based assay to identify the cleavage sites recognized by this enzyme. Furthermore, by using K48-linked hexa-ubiquitin substrate and ubiquitin-vinylsulfone inhibitor specific for deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), we confirmed that, like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) CoV PLpro, HCoV-NL63 PLP2 has DUB activity. The identification of the replicase products and characterization of HCoV-NL63 PLP DUB activity will facilitate comparative studies of CoV proteases and aid in the development of novel antiviral reagents directed against human pathogens such as HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV.     

Core structure of S2 from the human coronavirus NL63 spike glycoprotein

Human coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63) has recently been identified as a causative agent of acute respiratory tract illnesses in infants and young children. The HCoV-NL63 spike (S) protein mediates virion attachment to cells and subsequent fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. This viral entry process is a primary target for vaccine and drug development. HCoV-NL63 S is expressed as a single-chain glycoprotein and consists of an N-terminal receptor-binding domain (S1) and a C-terminal transmembrane fusion domain (S2). The latter contains two highly conserved heptad-repeat (HR) sequences that are each extended by 14 amino acids relative to those of the SARS coronavirus or the prototypic murine coronavirus, mouse hepatitis virus. Limited proteolysis studies of the HCoV-NL63 S2 fusion core identify an alpha-helical domain composed of a trimer of the HR segments N57 and C42. The crystal structure of this complex reveals three C42 helices entwined in an oblique and antiparallel manner around a central triple-stranded coiled coil formed by three N57 helices. The overall geometry comprises distinctive high-affinity conformations of interacting cross-sectional layers of the six helices. As a result, this structure is unusually stable, with an apparent melting temperature of 78 degrees C in the presence of the denaturant guanidine hydrochloride at 5 M concentration. The extended HR regions may therefore be required to prime the group 1 S glycoproteins for their fusion-activating conformational changes during viral entry. Our results provide an initial basis for understanding an intriguing interplay between the presence or absence of proteolytic maturation among the coronavirus groups and the membrane fusion activity of their S glycoproteins. This study also suggests a potential strategy for the development of improved HCoV-NL63 fusion inhibitors.     

Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes

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