Net biome production of the Amazon Basin in the 21st century

Global change includes multiple stressors to natural ecosystems ranging from direct climate and land‐use impacts to indirect degradation processes resulting from fire. Humid tropical forests are vulnerable to projected climate change and possible synergistic interactions with deforestation and fire, which may initiate a positive feedback to rising atmospheric CO₂. Here, we present results from a multifactorial impact analysis that combined an ensemble of climate change models with feedbacks from deforestation and accidental fires to quantify changes in Amazon Basin carbon cycling. Using the LPJmL Dynamic Global Vegetation Model, we modelled spatio‐temporal changes in net biome production (NBP); the difference between carbon fluxes from fire, deforestation, soil respiration and net primary production. By 2050, deforestation and fire (with no CO₂ increase or climate change) resulted in carbon losses of 7.4–20.3 Pg C with the range of uncertainty depending on socio‐economic storyline. During the same time period, interactions between climate and land use either compensated for carbon losses due to wetter climate and CO₂ fertilization or exacerbated carbon losses from drought‐induced forest mortality (?20.1 to +4.3 Pg C). By the end of the 21st century, depending on climate projection and the rate of deforestation (including its interaction with fire), carbon stocks either increased (+12.6 Pg C) or decreased (?40.6 Pg C). The synergistic effect of deforestation and fire with climate change contributed up to 26–36 Pg C of the overall decrease in carbon stocks. Agreement between climate projections (n=9), not accounting for deforestation and fire, in 2050 and 2098 was relatively low for the directional change in basin‐wide NBP (19–37%) and aboveground live biomass (13–24%). The largest uncertainty resulted from climate projections, followed by implementation of ecosystem dynamics and deforestation. Our analysis partitions the drivers of tropical ecosystem change and is relevant for guiding mitigation and adaptation policy related to global change.     

Aboveground net production and dry matter allocation ofPinus pumila forests in the Kiso mountain range,central Japan

Aboveground net production rates of the subalpine stone pine (Pinus pumila) forests in central Japan were estimated by the summation method; net production was defined as the sum of annual biomass increment and annual loss due to death. In the two pine stands of different scrub heights, P1 (200 cm) and P2 (140 cm), aboveground biomass reached 177 and 126 ton ha⁻¹, respectively. Leaf biomass was about 14 ton ha⁻¹ in each stand. The estimates of aboveground net production during the 2 year period (1987–1989) averaged 4.1 and 3.7 ton ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ in P1 and P2, respectively, which were at the lowest among the pine forests in the world. Two indices of efficiency of energy fixation, that is, the ratio of net production to the total radiation during a growing season and the ratio of net production to total radiation per unit of leaf weight, were evaluated. Both efficiency indices for the twoP. pumila stands fell in the range obtained for other Japanese evergreen conifer forests. This suggested that the low annual net production of the stone pine stands were mainly due to a limitation in the length of the growing season. The pine forests were also characterized by a small allocation (about 17%) of aboveground net production into biomass increment, in comparison with other evergreen conifer forest types. Annual net carbon gain in theP. pumila forests was suggested to be largely invested in leaf production at the expense of the growth of woody parts.     

The influence of fire on carbon distribution and net primary production of boreal Larix gmelinii forests in north-eastern China

The boreal larch forest of Eurasia is a widespread forest ecosystem and plays an important role in the carbon budget of boreal forests. However, few carbon budgets exist for these forests, and the effects of wildfire, the dominant natural disturbance in this region, on carbon budgets are poorly understood. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of wildfire on carbon distribution and net primary production (NPP) for three major Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii Rupr.) forest ecosystems in Tahe, Daxing'anling, north‐eastern China: Larix gmelinii–Ledum palustre, Larix gmelinii–grass and Larix gmelinii–Rhododendron dahurica forests. The experimental design included mature forests (unburned), and lightly and heavily burned forests from the 1.3‐million‐ha 1987 wildfire. We measured carbon distribution and above‐ground NPP, and estimated fine root production from literature values. Total ecosystem carbon content for the mature forests was greatest for Larix–Ledum forests (251.4 t C ha^?1) and smallest for Larix–grass forests (123.8 t C ha^?1). Larix–Ledum forests contained the smallest vegetation carbon (13.5%), while Larix–Rhododendron contained the largest vegetation carbon (63.1%). Fires tended to transfer carbon from vegetation to detritus and soil. Total NPP did not differ significantly between the lightly burned and unburned stands, and averaged 1.58, 1.29 and 1.01 t C ha^?1 year^?1 for Larix–grass, Larix–Rhododendron and Larix–Ledum lightly burned stands, respectively. Above‐ground net primary production (ANPP) of heavily burned stands was 92–95% less than unburned and lightly burned stands. The estimated carbon loss during the 1987 fire showed substantial variability among forest types and fire severity levels. Depending upon the assumptions made about the fraction of the landscape occupied by the three larch forest types, the 1987 conflagration in north‐east China released 2.5 × 10⁷?4.9 × 10⁷ t C to the atmosphere. This study illustrates the need to distinguish between the different larch forests for developing general carbon budgets.     

Carbon cycling and storage in world forests: biome patterns related to forest age

Forest age, which is affected by stand‐replacing ecosystem disturbances (such as forest fires, harvesting, or insects), plays a distinguishing role in determining the distribution of carbon (C) pools and fluxes in different forested ecosystems. In this synthesis, net primary productivity (NPP), net ecosystem productivity (NEP), and five pools of C (living biomass, coarse woody debris, organic soil horizons, soil, and total ecosystem) are summarized by age class for tropical, temperate, and boreal forest biomes. Estimates of variability in NPP, NEP, and C pools are provided for each biome‐age class combination and the sources of variability are discussed. Aggregated biome‐level estimates of NPP and NEP were higher in intermediate‐aged forests (e.g., 30–120 years), while older forests (e.g., >120 years) were generally less productive. The mean NEP in the youngest forests (0–10 years) was negative (source to the atmosphere) in both boreal and temperate biomes (?0.1 and –1.9 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1, respectively). Forest age is a highly significant source of variability in NEP at the biome scale; for example, mean temperate forest NEP was ?1.9, 4.5, 2.4, 1.9 and 1.7 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1 across five age classes (0–10, 11–30, 31–70, 71–120, 121–200 years, respectively). In general, median NPP and NEP are strongly correlated (R²=0.83) across all biomes and age classes, with the exception of the youngest temperate forests. Using the information gained from calculating the summary statistics for NPP and NEP, we calculated heterotrophic soil respiration (R_h) for each age class in each biome. The mean R_h was high in the youngest temperate age class (9.7 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1) and declined with age, implying that forest ecosystem respiration peaks when forests are young, not old. With notable exceptions, carbon pool sizes increased with age in all biomes, including soil C. Age trends in C cycling and storage are very apparent in all three biomes and it is clear that a better understanding of how forest age and disturbance history interact will greatly improve our fundamental knowledge of the terrestrial C cycle.     

Soil Nutrients Limit Fine Litter Production and Tree Growth in Mature Lowland Forest of Southwestern Borneo

Efforts to improve models of terrestrial productivity and to understand the function of tropical forests in global carbon cycles require a mechanistic understanding of spatial variation in aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) across tropical landscapes. To help derive such an understanding for Borneo, we monitored aboveground fine litterfall, woody biomass increment and ANPP (their sum) in mature forest over 29 months across a soil nutrient gradient in southwestern Kalimantan. In 30 (0.07 ha) plots stratified throughout the watershed (∼340 ha, 8–190 m a.s.l.), we measured productivity and tested its relationship with 27 soil parameters. ANPP across the study area was among the highest reported for mature lowland tropical forests. Aboveground fine litterfall ranged from 5.1 to 11.0 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and averaged 7.7 ± 0.4 (mean ± 95 C.I.). Woody biomass increment ranged from 5.8 to 23.6 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and averaged 12.0 ± 2.0. Growth of large trees (≥60 cm dbh) contributed 38–82% of plot-wide biomass increment and explained 92% of variation among plots. ANPP, the sum of these parameters, ranged from 11.1 to 32.3 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and averaged 19.7 ± 2.2. ANPP was weakly related to fine litterfall (r ² = 0.176), but strongly related to growth of large trees at least 60 cm dbh (r ² = 0.848). Adjusted ANPP after accounting for apparent “mature forest bias” in our sampling method was 17.5 ± 1.2 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹.Relating productivity measures to soil parameters showed that spatial patterning in productivity was significantly related to soil nutrients, especially phosphorus (P). Fine litterfall increased strongly with extractable P (r ² = 0.646), but reached an asymptote at moderate P levels, whereas biomass increment (r ² = 0.473) and ANPP (r ² = 0.603) increased linearly across the gradient. Biomass increment of large trees was more frequently and strongly related to nutrients than small trees, suggesting size dependency of tree growth on nutrients. Multiple linear regression confirmed the leading importance of soil P, and identified Ca as a potential co-limiting factor. Our findings strongly suggest that (1) soil nutrients, especially P, limit aboveground productivity in lowland Bornean forests, and (2) these forests play an important, but changing role in carbon cycles, as canopy tree logging alters these terrestrial carbon sinks. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

广东省不同土地利用方式对土壤微生物量碳氮的影响

通过野外调查与室内分析,研究了广东省韶关红壤、广州赤红壤、雷州砖红壤3个地区4种不同土地利用方式(林地、果园、草地和农田)表层土壤(0～20cm)微生物量C、N特征.研究结果表明:不同土壤类型和不同土地利用方式对土壤微生物量C、N均有一定影响,其中土地利用方式影响更为明显.不同土地利用方式下土壤微生物量C、N差异显著,均表现为果园和林地高于农田和草地.土壤有机C、全N同样以果园较高.而对微生物商分析结果表明,不同的土地利用方式对土壤有机C总量和微生物生物量C的影响程度并不一致.相关分析表明,土壤微生物量C、N与全N、有机C、速效N显著正相关;土壤微生物量C、N之间显著相关,证实土壤微生物量C、N是可以表征土壤肥力的敏感因子.     

Aboveground Forest Biomass and the Global Carbon Balance

The long‐term net flux of carbon between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere has been dominated by two factors: changes in the area of forests and per hectare changes in forest biomass resulting from management and regrowth. While these factors are reasonably well documented in countries of the northern mid‐latitudes as a result of systematic forest inventories, they are uncertain in the tropics. Recent estimates of carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have focused on the uncertainty in rates of deforestation. By using the same data for biomass, however, these studies have underestimated the total uncertainty of tropical emissions and may have biased the estimates. In particular, regional and country‐specific estimates of forest biomass reported by three successive assessments of tropical forest resources by the FAO indicate systematic changes in biomass that have not been taken into account in recent estimates of tropical carbon emissions. The ‘changes’ more likely represent improved information than real on‐the‐ground changes in carbon storage. In either case, however, the data have a significant effect on current estimates of carbon emissions from the tropics and, hence, on understanding the global carbon balance.     

土地利用变化对川西米亚罗林土壤活性碳库的影响

为了揭示土地利用变化对土壤活性有机碳库的影响,在四川省亚高山米亚罗林区,以原始冷杉林(M-Y)和由原始林转化成的45年龄云杉人工林(M-60)、25年龄云杉人工林(M-80)和菜地(M-C)等4种土地利用类型为研究对象,进行了土壤的微生物量碳(MBC)、水溶性有机碳(WDOC)和易氧化有机碳(LOC)的含量和季节变化研究.结果表明,土地利用变化明显影响土壤活性有机碳组分的含量,其中微生物量碳和水溶性有机碳的变化趋势为M-Y>M-60>M-80>M-C,易氧化有机碳的变化趋势则为M-60>M-Y.土地利用变化没有改变活性有机碳各组分的垂直分布,各组分均随着土层深度的增加而降低,季节变化幅度较小,但枯落物层和表层土壤的变化幅度明显高于深层土壤,而各组分的分配比例变化幅度明显小于活性有机碳含量的变化.     

黄皮湿地植物群落多样性及土壤有机碳储量

湿地是重要的碳库;探究其碳储量对全球碳循环和湿地保护具有重要意义。本研究选择亚热带亚高山沼泽湿地——浙江百山祖黄皮湿地;探究湿地植物群落多样性和土壤有机碳储量特征。结果表明:（1）黄皮湿地上下湖共记录有植物54种;隶属于26科44属。其中莎草科最多;有13种;其次是禾本科;有5种;其余物种零星分布于各科。（2）4种典型群落的物种丰富度和Shannon多样性指数没有明显差异;而细叶刺子莞群落的Simpson生态优势度指数和Pielou均匀度指数均显著低于其他3种群落。同时;细叶刺子莞群落的碳储量（1225.36 g·m^-2）最高。（3）6种优势植物的生物量和地上/地下生物量比值没有显著差异;但碳含量、地上/地下碳储量比值均差异显著。6种优势植物根茎叶的碳含量均在40%以上。（4）黄皮湿地土壤有机碳含量和密度较高;上下湖总体的生态系统碳储量为0.018 Tg。黄皮湿地有着较高的碳密度和碳储量;可提供很好的碳汇功能;具有极高的保护价值。     

Net greenhouse gas fluxes in Brazilian ethanol production systems

Biofuels are both a promising solution to global warming mitigation and a potential contributor to the problem. Several life cycle assessments of bioethanol have been conducted to address these questions. We performed a synthesis of the available data on Brazilian ethanol production focusing on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and carbon (C) sinks in the agricultural and industrial phases. Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from fossil fuels, methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from sources commonly included in C footprints, such as fossil fuel usage, biomass burning, nitrogen fertilizer application, liming and litter decomposition were accounted for. In addition, black carbon (BC) emissions from burning biomass and soil C sequestration were included in the balance. Most of the annual emissions per hectare are in the agricultural phase, both in the burned system (2209 out of a total of 2398 kg C_eq), and in the unburned system (559 out of 748 kg C_eq). Although nitrogen fertilizer emissions are large, 111 kg C_eq ha^?1 yr^?1, the largest single source of emissions is biomass burning in the manual harvest system, with a large amount of both GHG (196 kg C_eq ha^?1 yr^?1). and BC (1536 kg C_eq ha^?1 yr^?1). Besides avoiding emissions from biomass burning, harvesting sugarcane mechanically without burning tends to increase soil C stocks, providing a C sink of 1500 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1 in the 30 cm layer. The data show a C output: input ratio of 1.4 for ethanol produced under the conventionally burned and manual harvest compared with 6.5 for the mechanized harvest without burning, signifying the importance of conservation agricultural systems in bioethanol feedstock production.     

Who owns the Brazilian carbon?

Brazil is one of the major contributors to land‐use change emissions, mostly driven by agricultural expansion for food, feed, and bioenergy feedstock. Policies to avoid deforestation related to private commitments, economic incentives, and other support schemes are expected to improve the effectiveness of current command and control mechanisms increasingly. However, until recently, land tenure was unknown for much of the Brazilian territory, which has undermined the governance of native vegetation and challenged support and incentive mechanisms for avoiding deforestation. We assess the total extent of public governance mechanisms protecting aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks. We constructed a land tenure dataset for the entire nation and modeled the effects and uncertainties of major land‐use acts on protecting AGC stocks. Roughly 70% of the AGC stock in Brazil is estimated to be under legal protection, and an additional 20% is expected to be protected after areas in the Amazon with currently undesignated land undergo a tenure regularization. About 30% of the AGC stock is on private land, of which roughly two‐thirds are protected. The Cerrado, Amazon, and Caatinga biomes hold about 40%, 30%, and 20% of the unprotected AGC, respectively. Effective conservation of protected and unprotected carbon will depend on successful implementation of the Forest Act, and regularization of land tenure in the Amazon. Policy development that prioritizes unprotected AGC stocks is warranted to promote conservation of native vegetation beyond the legal requirements. However, different biomes and land tenure structures may require different policy settings considering local and regional specifics. Finally, the fate of current AGC stocks relies upon effective implementation of command and control mechanisms, considering that unprotected AGC in native vegetation on private land only accounts for 6.5% of the total AGC stock.     

内蒙古典型草原物种组成和群落结构对长期放牧的响应

该文比较研究了内蒙古羊草草原和大针茅草原放牧演替系列经过20a (1985~2005年) 放牧, 利用群落组成与结构的变化分析了这两个放牧演替系列上15个植物群落的变化趋势, 并依此探讨长期放牧对草原生态系统结构和功能的影响。结果表明:在大针茅 (Stipa grandis) 牧压梯度系列上, 群落仍以大针茅群系为主, 冷蒿 (Artemisia frigida) 为建群种的群落消失;在羊草 (Leymus chinensis) 牧压梯度系列上, 羊草和冷蒿不再是建群种, 被西伯利亚羽茅 (Achnatherum sibiricum) 、大针茅、冰草 (Agropyron cristatum) 和糙隐子草 (Cleistogenes squarrosa) 所替代。综合两个牧压梯度系列的研究结果得出以下基本结论:长期过度放牧进一步加速了草原群落的退化进程, 但退化草原具有较高的恢复弹性, 控制放牧使部分群落得到一定程度的恢复。同一植物群落时间变化, 或不同演替阶段的植物群落在空间序列上的位移程度主要取决于放牧史和利用强度。过去20a中, 特别是2003年以来草原管理政策的改变并没有导致该区域草地的整体退化, 而是在一定程度上有利于草地的恢复。     

Land use–related Changes in Aboveground Carbon Stocks of Austria’s Terrestrial Ecosystems

Land-use changes considerably alter the patterns and processes of terrestrial ecosystems. In an attempt to assess the impact of the human domination of ecosystems, this study quantifies the effect of human activities on aboveground carbon stocks in vegetation, based on a comparison of potential and actual vegetation in Austria. Following an accounting approach, statistical and GIS data on vegetation, elevation, land use, biomass harvest, as well as forest inventories and real estate statistics, were entered into the assessment, which was performed at the level of municipalities (n = 2,350). The results show that aboveground carbon storage in Austria has been considerably reduced by human activities. Actual vegetation contains 64% less carbon than would be expected in potential vegetation. The conversion of forests to cropland, grasslands, and urban areas has contributed 77% to this reduction in carbon stocks, the remaining 23% is due to forest management. In Austria, aboveground carbon stocks in forests have been reduced by 30% due to reductions in stand age and changes in forest species composition. Placing the data in a historical context, this analysis suggests that the current terrestrial carbon sink is a reversal of past carbon losses.     

Effects of soil water content on soil respiration in forests and cattle pastures of eastern Amazonia

The effect of soil water content on efflux of CO₂ from soils has been described by linear, logarithmic, quadratic, and parabolic functions of soil water expressed as matric potential, gravimetric and volumetric water content, water holding capacity, water-filled pore space, precipitation indices, and depth to water table. The effects of temperature and water content are often statistically confounded. The objectives of this study are: (1) to analyze seasonal variation in soil water content and soil respiration in the eastern Amazon Basin where seasonal temperature variation is minor; and (2) to examine differences in soil CO₂ emissions among primary forests, secondary forests, active cattle pastures, and degraded cattle pastures. Rates of soil respiration decreased from wet to dry seasons in all land uses. Grasses in the active cattle pasture were productive in the wet season and senescent in the dry season, resulting in the largest seasonal amplitude of CO₂ emissions, whereas deep-rooted forests maintained substantial soil respiration during the dry season. Annual emissions were 2.0, 1.8, 1.5, and 1.0 kg C m^-2 yr^-1 for primary forest, secondary forest, active pasture, and degraded pasture, respectively. Emissions of CO₂ were correlated with the logarithm of matric potential and with the cube of volumetric water content, which are mechanistically appropriate functions for relating soil respiration at below-optimal water contents. The parameterization of these empirical functions was not consistent with those for a temperate forest. Relating rates of soil respiration to water and temperature measurements made at some arbitrarily chosen depth of the surface horizons is simplistic. Further progress in defining temperature and moisture functions may require measurements of temperature, water content and CO₂ production for each soil horizon.     

Biomass production in a nitrogen-fertilized,tallgrass prairie ecosystem exposed to ambient and elevated levels of CO2

Increased biomass production in terrestrial ecosystems with elevated atmospheric CO₂ may be constrained by nutrient limitations as a result of increased requirement or reduced availability caused by reduced turnover rates of nutrients. To determine the short-term impact of nitrogen (N) fertilization on plant biomass production under elevated CO₂, we compared the response of N-fertilized tallgrass prairie at ambient and twice-ambient CO₂ levels over a 2-year period. Native tallgrass prairie plots (4.5 m diameter) were exposed continuously (24 h) to ambient and twice-ambient CO₂ from 1 April to 26 October. We compared our results to an unfertilized companion experiment on the same research site. Above- and belowground biomass production and leaf area of fertilized plots were greater with elevated than ambient CO₂ in both years. The increase in biomass at high CO₂ occurred mainly aboveground in 1991, a dry year, and belowground in 1990, a wet year. Nitrogen concentration was lower in plants exposed to elevated CO₂, but total standing crop N was greater at high CO₂. Increased root biomass under elevated CO₂ apparently increased N uptake. The biomass production response to elevated CO₂ was much greater on N-fertilized than unfertilized prairie, particularly in the dry year. We conclude that biomass production response to elevated CO₂ was suppressed by N limitation in years with below-normal precipitation. Reduced N concentration in above- and belowground biomass could slow microbial degradation of soil organic matter and surface litter, thereby exacerbating N limitation in the long term.     

哈尼梯田生态系统土壤微生物量碳的影响因素

土壤微生物量碳(MBC,Microbial Biomass Carbon)是土壤微生物量的重要组成部分,也是土壤肥力变化的重要指标之一。哈尼梯田肥沃的土壤对哈尼梯田生态系统的维持与循环起到重要作用。以哈尼梯田水源区(乔木林、灌木林、荒草地)和梯田为研究对象,采用氯仿熏蒸法测定了4种不同土地利用类型0—20、20—40、40—60 cm 3个土层的土壤MBC,并分析了其与季节变化、地上植被及土壤理化性质之间的关系。结果表明:4种土地利用类型土壤MBC 3个土层皆以乔木林最高,其次是灌木林、荒草地、梯田,且4种土地利用类型土壤MBC含量都随土层深度的增加而减少,其中乔木林0—20 cm土层土壤MBC含量是40—60 cm土层的3.19倍。4种土地利用类型土壤MBC含量均具有明显的季节变化,总体呈\"夏季偏高冬季偏低\"的变化模式。相关分析表明,不同土地利用类型地上植被的多样性指数、盖度、优势种高度、枯落物层厚度与每一土层土壤MBC都具有很强的相互关系。土壤MBC与土壤有机碳和土壤孔隙度呈正相关性,与土壤容重呈负相关性。植被生长情况、土壤有机碳和孔隙度含量及季节变化是导致不同土地利用类型土壤微生物量碳差异的主要因素。