Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) pectins are covalently cross-linked through diferulic bridges in the cell wall

Arabinan and galactan side chains of sugar beet pectins are esterified by ferulic acid residues that can undergo in vivo oxidative reactions to form dehydrodiferulates. After acid and enzymatic degradation of sugar beet cell walls and fractionation of the solubilized products by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, three dehydrodiferulate-rich fractions were isolated. The structural identification of the different compounds present in these fractions was performed by electrospray-ion trap-mass spectrometry (before and after (18)O labeling) and high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. Several compounds contained solely Ara (terminal or alpha-1-->5-linked-dimer) and dehydrodiferulate. The location of the dehydrodiferulate was assigned in some cases to the O-2 and in others to the O-5 of non-reducing Ara residues. One compound contained Gal (beta-1-->4-linked-dimer), Ara (alpha-1-->5-linked-dimer) and dehydrodiferulate. The location of the dehydrodiferulate was unambiguously assigned to the O-2 of the non-reducing Ara residue and O-6 of the non-reducing Gal residue. These results provide direct evidence that pectic arabinans and galactans are covalently cross-linked (intra- or inter-molecularly) through dehydrodiferulates in sugar beet cell walls. Molecular modeling was used to compute and structurally characterize the low energy conformations of the isolated compounds. Interestingly, the conformations of the dehydrodiferulate-bridged arabinan and galactan fragments selected from an energetic criterion, evidenced very nice agreement with the experimental occurrence of the dehydrodiferulated pectins. The present work combines for the first time intensive mass spectrometry data and molecular modeling to give structural relevance of a molecular cohesion between rhamnogalacturonan fragments.     

Isolation of diferulic bridges ester-linked to arabinan in sugar beet cell walls

After degradation of sugar beet cell walls with Driselase and fractionation of the solubilised products by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, a dehydrodiferuloylated oligoarabinan was isolated. Its structure was assigned to two dimers of (1-->5)-linked arabinose units esterified by a central 8-O-4' ferulic dimer. These results provide the first direct evidence that pectic arabinans in sugar beet cell walls may be covalently cross-linked through dehydrodiferulates.     

Influence of ferulic acid on the production of feruloyl esterases by Aspergillus niger

Extracellular feruloyl esterases from the filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger are induced by growth on oat spelt xylan (OSX), which contains no detectable esterified ferulic acid. FAE-III accounted for most of the feruloyl esterase activity. Addition of free ferulic acid to OSX at the start of the culture induced FAE-III secretion a further 2.3-fold, and also induced other feruloyl esterases which could not be ascribed to FAE-III. Wheat bran- (WB)-grown cultures, containing 1% (m/v) ester-linked ferulic acid, gave almost identical FAE-III and total feruloyl esterase activities as the cultures grown on OSX plus ferulic acid. De-esterification of WB yielded less total feruloyl esterase, and 2.4-fold less FAE-III, compared to untreated WB. A slightly modified form of FAE-III was produced on de-esterified WB. These results show that production of FAE-III does not absolutely require ferulic acid. However, production is stimulated by the presence of free ferulic acid through increased expression, and is reduced by the removal of esterified ferulic acid from the growth substrate.     

The structure of a dextran produced by Leuconostoc mesenteroides NRRL B-1397: the linkages and length of the branches

The structure of a dextran produced by Leuconostoc mesenteroides NRRL B-1397 has been investigated in relation to its immunological properties. The methylated dextran yielded on acid hydrolysis 2,3,4,6-tetra-, 2,3,4-tri-, 3,4,-di-, and 2,4-di-O-methyl-d-glucose, in the molar ratio of 1.0:3.1:0.7:0.2, together with a trace of 2,4,6-tri-O-methyl-dglucose, indicating that the branches occur mainly at O-2 and the remainder at O-3. A carboxyl-dextran, obtained by catalytic oxidation of the dextran to convert the terminal, non-reducing d-glucose residues d-glucuronic acid residues, was partially hydrolyzed with acid. Fractionation gave 2-O-(α-d-glucopyranosyluronic acid) d-glucose (major), 6-O-(α-d-glucopyranosyluronic acid)-d-glucose, and mixtures of aldotri-, aldotetra-, and aldopentaouronic acid that contain both (1 → 6)- and (1 → 2)-d-glucosidic linkages. It is concluded that the branches at O-2 are mainly single d-glucose units, whereas those occurring at O-3 may be longer than two glucose units, forming a highly branched structure having an average repeating- unit of 5 sugar residues.     

Characterization of arabinose and ferulic acid rich pectic polysaccharides and hemicelluloses from sugar beet pulp

Pectic polysaccharides were extracted from sugar beet pulp to yield fractions representing homogalacturonans, rhamnogalacturonans, arabinans and relatively small amounts of glucomannans and xyloglucans. The homogalacturonans had an apparent molecular weight of 21 kDa and contained relatively high amounts of methyl esters and relatively low amounts of acetyl groups as compared with the ramified 'hairy' regions. Three populations which originated from the ramified 'hairy' regions of pectin were distinguished. Two of these were rhamnogalacturonans with high apparent molecular weights of 1300 and 120 kDa, respectively. These populations had a high Ara and ferulic acid content. Despite the high neutral sugar content, these rhamnogalacturonans strongly bound to a DEAE column. The third population which originated from the ramified 'hairy' regions was a neutral population, which did not interact with the DEAE column and had a low apparent molecular weight and a high Ara and ferulic acid content. The arabinan side-chains of the rhamnogalacturonans were heavily branched in all populations. Enzymatic degradation of the xyloglucans showed similarities with apple xyloglucans with respect to the substitution with Fuc and Gal.     

Structure of a highly substituted beta-xylan of the gum exudate of the palm Livistona chinensis (Chinese fan)

Structural features of the acidic, highly substituted glycanoxylan (LCP; 87% yield) from the gum exudate of the palm, Livistona chinensis, family Arecaceae, were determined. It had [alpha]D -30 degrees, Mw 1.9x10(5) and a polydispersity ratio Mw/Mn of approximately 1.0. Acid hydrolysis gave rise to Rha, Fuc, Ara, Xyl, and Gal, in a 1:6:46:44:3 molar ratio, and 12% of uronic acid was present. LCP had a highly branched structure with side-chains containing nonreducing end-units (% values are approximate) of Araf (15%), Fucp (4%), Xylp (7%), GlcpA, and 4-Me-GlcpA, and internal 2-O- (5%) and 3-O-substituted Araf (8%), and 2-O-substituted Xylp (14%) units. The (1-->4)-linked beta-Xylp main-chain units of LCP were substituted at O-3 (4%), O-2 (17%), and O-2,3 (16%). Partial acid hydrolysis gave 4-Me-alpha-GlcpA-(1-->2)-[beta-Xylp-(1-->4)](0-2)-Xyl, identified by showing that the uronic acids were single-unit side-chain substituents on O-2. Milder hydrolysis conditions removed from O-3 other side-chains containing Fucp and Araf nonreducing end-units and internal Arap, and 2-O- and 3-O-substituted Araf units. Carboxyl-reduced LCP contained 4-O-methylglucose and glucose in a 3.2:1 molar ratio, arising from GlcpA and 4-OMe-GlcpA nonreducing end-units, respectively. The gum contained small amounts of free alpha-Fucp-(1-->2)-Ara, which corresponds to structures in the polysaccharide. Free myo- and D- or L-chiro-inositol were present in a 9:1 ratio.     

Characterization of an acetylated heteroxylan from Eucalyptus globulus Labill

A heteroxylan was isolated from Eucalyptus globulus wood by extraction of peracetic acid delignified holocellulose with dimethyl sulfoxide. Besides (1-->4)-linked beta-D-xylopyranosyl units of the backbone and short side chains of terminal (1-->2)-linked 4-O-methyl-alpha-D-glucuronosyl residues (MeGlcA) in a 1:10 molar ratio, this hemicellulose contained galactosyl and glucosyl units attached at O-2 of MeGlcA originating from rhamnoarabinogalactan and glucan backbones, respectively. About 30% of MeGlcA units were branched at O-2. The O-acetyl-(4-O-methylglucurono)xylan showed an acetylation degree of 0.61, as determined by 1H NMR spectroscopy, and a weight-average molecular weight (M(w)) of about 36 kDa (P=1.05) as revealed from size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) analysis. About half of the beta-D-xylopyranosyl units of the backbone were found as acetylated moieties at O-3 (34 mol%), O-2 (15 mol%) or O-2,3 (6 mol%). Practically, all beta-D-xylopyranosyl units linked at O-2 with MeGlcA residues were 3-O-acetylated (10 mol%).     

Structural studies on water-soluble arabinoxylans in rye grain using enzymatic hydrolysis

The major water-soluble arabinoxylan fraction from rye grain, containing 4-linked β- -xylopyranosyl residues of which about 43% were substituted solely at O-3 and 7% at both O-2 and O-3 with terminal - -arabinofuranosyl units, was hydrolysed to different extents using semi-purified xylanase from Trichoderma reesei. Products were fractionated on Biogel P-2 and structurally elucidated by sugar, methylation and high-field ¹H-NMR analysis. Moderate hydrolysis released arabinose, xylose, xylobiose, xylotriose and xylotetraose together with xylo-oligosaccharides (DP ≥ 4) in which one or more of the residues were substituted at O-3 with a terminal arabinose unit. The xylose residues substituted with arabinose units at both O-2 and O-3 became enriched in the remaining polymeric fraction. Extensive hydrolysis with the enzyme released arabinose, xylose and xylobiose as major products together with small amounts of two oligosaccharides and a polymeric fraction. One of the oligosaccharides was identified as xylotriose in which the non-reducing end was substituted at O-2 and O-3 with terminal arabinose units and the other as xylotetraose in which one of the interjacent residues was substituted with arabinose units in the same way. The polymeric fraction contained a main chain of 4-linked xylose residues in which 60–70% of the residues were substituted at both O-2 and O-3 with arabinose units.

The semi-purified enzyme contained xylanase and arabinosidase activities which rapidly degraded un- and mono-substituted xylose residues while the degradation of double-substituted xylose residues was much slower. The results show that the mono- and double-substituted xylose residues were present in different polymers or different regions of the same polymer.     

Phenolic components of the primary cell wall. Feruloylated disaccharides of D-galactose and L-arabinose from spinach polysaccharide.

1. Cell walls from rapidly growing cell suspension cultures of Spinacia oleracea L. contained ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid esterified with a water-insoluble polymer. 2. Prolonged treatment with trypsin did not release may feruloyl esters from dearabinofuranosylated cell walls, and the polymer was also insoluble in phenol/acetic acid/water (2:1:1, w/v/v). 3. Treatment of the cell walls with the fungal hydrolase preparation "Driselase' did liberate low-Mr feruloyl esters. The major esters were 4-O-(6-O-feruloyl-beta-D-galactopyranosyl)-D-galactose and 3?-O-feruloyl-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl)-L-arabinose. These two esters accounted for about 60% of the cell-wall ferulate. 4. It is concluded that the feruloylation of cell-wall polymers is not a random process, but occurs at very specific sites, probably on the arabinogalactan component of pectin. 5. The possible role of such phenolic substituents in cell-wall architecture and growth is discussed.     

Rhamnoarabinosyl and rhamnoarabinoarabinosyl side chains as structural features of coffee arabinogalactans

The hot water soluble green coffee arabinogalactans, representing nearly 7% of total coffee bean arabinogalactans, were characterized by (1)H and (13)C NMR and, after partial acid hydrolysis, by ESI-MS/MS. Data obtained showed that these are highly branched type II arabinogalactans covalently linked to proteins (AGP), with a protein moiety containing 10% of 4-hydroxyproline residues. They possess a beta-(1-->3)-Galp/beta-(1-->3,6)-Galp ratio of 0.80, with a sugars composition of Rha:Ara:Gal of 0.25:1.0:1.5, and containing 2mol% of glucuronic acid residues. Beyond the occurrence of single alpha-L-Araf residues and [alpha-L-Araf-(1-->5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1-->] disaccharide residues as side chains, these AGPs contain unusual side chains at O-3 position of the beta-(1-->6)-linked galactopyranosyl residues composed by [alpha-L-Rhap-(1-->5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1-->] and [alpha-L-Rhap-(1-->5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1-->5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1-->] oligosaccharides. Rhamnoarabinosyl and rhamnoarabinoarabinosyl side chains are reported for the first time as structural features of plant arabinogalactan-proteins.     

Water-soluble polysaccharide from Bupleurum chinense DC: Isolation, structural features and antioxidant activity

The water-soluble polysaccharide (BCPS-1) was isolated from Bupleurum chinense DC. BCPS-1 (M_w = 29 kDa) was composed of Ara; Gal; Glc with a molar ratio of 2.1:2.5:1. According to FT-IR, partial acid hydrolysis, periodate oxidation and Smith degradation, methylation and GC-MS analysis, the results indicate BCPS-1 had a backbone of (1→5)-linked Ara, (1→4)-linked Gal and (1→3)-linked Gal residues with occasionally branches at O-6. The branches were composed of (1→4)-linked Glc, and terminated with Gal residues. The in vitro antioxidant activity evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging method showed that BCPS-1 had a significant antioxidant effect in a concentration-dependent manner.     

Release of ferulic acid from agroindustrial by-products by the cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by Aspergillus niger I-1472

Aspergillus niger I-1472 was grown on sugar beet pulp to produce cell wall polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, including feruloyl esterases. Compared to enzymatic activities measured in commercially available mixtures previously used for the release of ferulic acid, the A. niger enzymes were more various. These enzymes were tested to release ferulic acid from sugar beet pulp, maize bran, or autoclaved maize bran. They were as efficient as the commercial mixture to release ferulic acid from sugar beet pulp. On the other hand, they were much more efficient to release ferulic acid from maize bran after autoclaving pretreatment, as 95% of ferulic acid ester were solubilized. Thus, A. niger enzymes exhibited a high interest in the release of ferulic acid from various agro-industrial by-products.     

Polysaccharides from the seeds of Senna multijuga

The seeds of Senna multijuga were extracted with water or 1% acetic acid and treated with ethanol, resulting in two insoluble fractions. After purification, the major one (FIA, 23%) was shown to be a galactomannan (Man:Gal 2.3:1;[] = + 54.6;[η]=1340mlg⁻¹). It consists of a main chain of (1 → 4)-linked β-d-mannopyranosyl residues substituted at 06 by single-unit -d-galactopyranosyl side chains. The second fraction (FIB, 2.5%) was an O-acetyl-glucuronoarabinoxylan from the seed coats (O-acetyl 8.3 mol%; glucuronic acid 11.7%, Xyl:Ara ratio 20:1), which showed a predominance of 4-O-substituted Xylp units (84.4%), branched at 03 with non-reducing end units of Xylp, Araf and glucuronic acid. The O-acetyl positions in d-xylosyl units are at 02 (4.8%), 03 (4.4%) and 02,3 (0.9%). The ratio between 03 and 02 determined by ¹³C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is 1.5:1.     

Expression of a fungal ferulic acid esterase in suspension cultures of tall fescue (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Festuca arundinacea</Emphasis>) decreases cell wall feruloylation and increases rates of cell wall digestion

In the cell walls of grasses ferulic acid is esterified to arabinosyl residues in arabinoxylans that can then undergo oxidative coupling reactions to form ferulate dehydrodimers, trimers and oligomers which function to cross-link cell-wall polysaccharides, limiting cell wall degradability. Fungal ferulic acid esterase can release both esterified monomeric and dimeric ferulic acids from these cell wall arabinoxylans making the cell wall more susceptible to further enzymatic attack and increasing cell wall degradability. Non-embryogenic cell suspension cultures of Festuca arundinacea expressing a Aspergillus niger ferulic acid esterase (faeA) targeted to either the apoplast, or endoplasmic reticulum under the control of a constitutive actin promoter, or to the vacuole under the control of a soybean heat shock promoter, were established and FAE activity determined in the cells and medium during a growth cycle. Analysis of the ester-linked ferulates of the cell walls showed that all three transformed cell lines had both reduced ferulate levels and increased levels of xylanase mediated release of wall phenolics on autodigestion as well as increased rates of cell wall digestion in a simulated rumen environment, when compared to control non-transformed cells.     

O-acetylated oligosaccharides from pectins of potato tuber cell walls.

Acetylated trigalacturonides and rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I)-derived oligosaccharides were isolated from a Driselase digest of potato tuber cell walls by ion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. The oligosaccharides were structurally characterized by fast atom bombardment-mass spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and glycosyl-linkage composition analysis. One trigalacturonide contained a single acetyl group at O-3 of the reducing galacturonic acid residue. A second trigalacturonide contained two acetyl substituents, which were located on O-3 or O-4 of the nonreducing galacturonic acid residue and O-3 of the reducing galacturonic acid residue. RG-I backbone-derived oligomers had acetyl groups at O-2 of the galacturonic acid residues. Some of these galacturonic acid residues were O-acetylated at both O-2 and O-3 positions. Rhamnosyl residues of RG-I oligomers were not acetylated.     

Structure of a heteroxylan of gum exudate of the palm Scheelea phalerata (uricuri)

The polysaccharide isolated from the gum exudate of palm Scheelea phalerata (SPN) was water-insoluble and composed of Fuc, Ara, Xyl, and uronic acid moieties in a 5:34:54:7 molar ratio: 12% of phenolics were also present. A soluble polysaccharide (SPNa) was obtained after alkaline treatment, which contained Fuc, Ara, Xyl and uronic acid in a 7:44:42:7 molar ratio, with only 2% phenolics. SPNa had an M(W) approximately 1.04 x 10(5) g mol(-1) and was almost monodisperse (M(W)/M(N) : 1.25 +/-0.22). It had a branched structure with side chains of 2-O-substituted Xylp (approximately 8%) and 3-O-substituted Araf (12%) units, and a large proportion of nonreducing end-units of Araf (15%), Fucp (10%), Xylp (4%), and Arap (6%). The (1 --> 4)-linked beta-Xylp main-chain units were 3-O- (9%), 2-O- (13%), and 2,3-di-O- (13%) substituted. Its (13)C NMR spectrum contained at least 9 C-1 signals, those at delta 108.6 and 107.7 arising from alpha-Araf units. Others were present at delta 175.4 from C-6 of alpha-GlcpA and delta 15.6 from C-6 of Fucp units. The main chain of SPNa was confirmed by analysis of a Smith-degraded polysaccharide (SPDS): methylation analysis provided a 2,3-Me(2)-Xyl (65%) derivative and its (13)C NMR spectrum showed five main signals typical of a (1 --> 4)-linked beta-Xylp units. Methylation analysis of a carboxy-reduced polysaccharide (SPN-CR) revealed a 2,3,4,6-Me(4)-Glc derivative (4%) arising from nonreducing end-units of GlcpA. Alpha-GlcpA-(1 --> 2)-alphabeta-Xy1p and alpha-GlcpA-(1 --> 2)-beta-Xylp-(1 --> 4)-alphabeta-Xylp were obtained via partial acid hydrolysis of SPN, showing the structure of side-chain substituents on O-2 of the main-chain units.     

Structural analysis of a pectic polysaccharide from the leaves of Diospyros kaki

A pectic polysaccharide DL-2A with a molar mass of 8.5 x 10(5), was obtained from the boiling water extract of Diospyros kaki leaves. It had [alpha]20D -21.8 degrees (c 0.22, H2O) and consisted of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, xylose and galacturonic acid units in the molar ratio of 0.4:3.4:2.4:1.0:0.8, along with traces of glucuronic acid. About 16.7% of galacturonic acid existed as the methyl ester. A combination of linkage analyses, periodate oxidation, partial acid hydrolysis, selective lithium-degraded reaction, ESIMS, 1H- and 13C- NMR spectral analyses revealed its structural features. It was found that DL-2A possessed an alpha-(1-->4)-galacturonan backbone with some insertions of alpha-1,2-Rhap residues. The side-chains of arabino-3,6-galactan were attached to the backbone via O-4 of Rhap residues and O-3 of GalAp residues, while 4-linked xylose residues (forming short linear chains) were directly linked to O-4 of rhamnose residues, not as part of the xylogalacturonan. These novel structural features enlarge the knowledge on the fine structure of pectic substances in the plant kingdom.     

Synthesis of glyceryl ferulate by immobilized ferulic acid esterase

Glyceryl ferulate was synthesized by the condensation of ferulic acid with glycerol using Pectinase PL “Amano” from Aspergillus niger, which contained ferulic acid esterase, to improve the water-solubility of ferulic acid. The optimum reaction medium was glycerol/0.1 M acetate buffer, pH 4.0, (98:2 v/v). The enzyme immobilized onto Chitopearl BCW3003 exhibited the highest activity among the those immobilized onto various kinds of Chitopearl BCW resins. The optimum temperature for the immobilized enzyme was 50°C, and it could be reused at least five times without a significant loss in activity for the synthesis of glyceryl ferulate in batch reaction. Storage of the reaction mixture at 25°C improved the molar fraction of glyceryl ferulate relative to the dissolved ferulic residues.     

Evidence for Covalently Attached p-Coumaric Acid and Ferulic Acid in Cutins and Suberins

p-Coumaric acid (4-hydroxycinnamic acid) and ferulic acid (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid) have been identified as constituents of cutin. Their reduction products were isolated from a phenolic fraction released from the cutin of the fruits of apple, peach, pear, and two varieties of tomato and apple leaf by treatment with LiAlH(4) or LiAlD(4). They were identified by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. p-Coumaric acid was present in all samples of cutin (0.07-0.53% by weight), whereas only peach and pear cutin contained measurable amounts of ferulic acid (0.007% and 0.035%, respectively). Both p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid were identified to be constituents of the insoluble material recovered after partial hydrolysis (12-42% loss) of cutin in 1 m NaOH at 80 C. A significant part (48%) of the p-coumaric acid contained in tomato cutin was contained in the insoluble material recovered after partial degradation (7.4%) of this cutin with 0.01 m NaOH. These data indicate that these phenolic components are tightly (possibly covalently) bound to cutin. Similar analysis of the phenolic fractions from the suberins of potato, sweet potato, turnip, rutabaga, carrot, and red beet revealed that they contained only ferulic acid (0.05-0.22%). Ferulic acid was identified as a constituent of the insoluble material recovered after partial hydrolysis of potato and beet suberins (34% and 32% loss, respectively) in 1 m NaOH at 80 C. A major part (65%) of the ferulic acid contained in potato suberin was contained in the insoluble material recovered after partial (26.8% loss) degradation of this suberin with 0.01 m NaOH. Ferulic acid appears to be tightly (probably covalently) bound to suberin.     

Studies on the structure of a lithium-treated soybean pectin: characteristics of the fragments and determination of the carbohydrate substituents of galacturonic acid

Two galacturonic-acid-containing polysaccharide fractions (ChSS and P) were isolated from soybean meal and subjected to lithium treatment. The fragments obtained were analyzed by using monosaccharide and methylation analyses, and NMR spectroscopy. Lithium degradation of ChSS, followed by sodium borodeuteride reduction, hydrolysis, sodium borohydride reduction, and acetylation afforded alditol acetates, of which the labeled ones reflected residues linked to GalA. As followed from quantifications of the labeled and non-labeled alditols from each constituent monosaccharide by GLC-EIMS, 6 mol% of Ara, 22 mol% of Fuc, 13 mol% of Gal, 53 mol% of Rha, and 57 mol% of Xyl are glycosidically linked to GalA. Analysis of the lithium-treated polymer revealed that it contains arabinogalactan side chains linked to Rha O-4, which consist of a beta-(1 --> 4)-linked galactan substituted with highly branched arabinan chains. On average, an arabinogalactan chain contains up to 29 Gal and 25 Ara residues. Surface plasmon resonance was used to determine conditions for affinity chromatography. Furthermore, this technique confirmed the presence of terminal alpha-Fuc residues in ChSS. Polysaccharide P turned out to be relatively resistant to lithium degradation.