THE IMPORTANCE OF DIATOM CELL SIZE IN COMMUNITY ANALYSIS1

The large variation in size and shape in diatoms is shown by morphometric measurements of 515 benthic and pelagic diatom species from the Baltic Sea area. The largest mean cell dimension (mostly the apical axis) varied between 4.2 and 653 μm, cell surface area between 55 and 344,000 μm², and cell volume between 21 and 14.2 × 10⁶μm³. The shape‐related index, length to width ratio, was between 1.0 and 63.3 and the shape‐ and size‐related index, surface area to volume ratio, was between 0.02 and 3.13. Diatom community analysis by multivariate statistics is usually based on counts of a fixed number of diatom valves with species scores irrespective of cell size. This procedure underestimates the large species for two reasons. First, the importance of a species with higher cell volume is usually larger in a community. Second, larger species usually have lower abundances and their occurrence in the diatom counts is stochastic. This article shows that co‐occurring small and large diatom species can respond very differently to environmental constraints. Large epiphytic diatoms responded most to macroalgal host species and small epiphytic diatoms most to environmental conditions at the sampling site. Large epilithic diatoms responded strongly to salinity, whereas small epilithic diatoms did so less clearly. The conclusion is that different scale‐dependent responses are possible within one data set. The results from the test data also show that important ecological information from diatom data can be missed when the large species are neglected or underestimated.     

HERITABILITY AND GENETIC CORRELATION OF COROLLA SHAPE AND SIZE IN ERYSIMUM MEDIOHISPANICUM

Flower shape has evolved in most plants as a consequence of pollinator-mediated selection. Unfortunately, no study has explored the genetic variation of flower shape, despite that this information is crucial to understand its adaptive evolution. Our main goal here is to determine heritability of corolla shape in Erysimum mediohispanicum (Brassicaceae). Also, we explore heritability of other pollinator-selected traits in this plant species, such as plant size, flower display, and corolla size. In addition, we investigate genetic correlations between all these traits. We found significant heritability for one plant-size trait (stalk height), for number of flowers, for all corolla-size traits (corolla diameter, corolla tube length and corolla tube width), and for corolla shape. Consequently, this species retains a high ability to respond to the selection exerted by its pollinators. Genetic correlation was strong between all functionally related traits and between flower number and plant size, weak between corolla size and plant size and no correlation between corolla shape and any other trait. Thus, selection affecting some E. mediohispanicum traits would also indirectly affect other functionally related and unrelated traits. More importantly, the observed genetic correlation seems to be at least partially adaptive because positive correlational selection currently acts on the covariance between some of these traits ( Gómez 2003 ; Gómez et al. 2006 ).     

Observations on the nesting habits of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) (Pisces: Cichlidae) in Sri Lankan reservoirs

The nest-building characteristics of Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) were studied in five manmade lakes (reservoirs) Sri Lanka. The nests were always found in clusters (arenas) and were generally located in or near coves and/or bays in shallow water. The density of nests in an arena varied between arenas in a reservoir and between reservoirs. The overall mean density of nests ranged between 0.47 and 6.31 m ² in the five reservoirs. The nests ranged from 11 to 110 cm in diameter, two size groups of nests being recognizable: small, with diameter 10–50 cm, and large with diameter >50 cm. At any nesting site only one size group of nests was found.
Nest diameter ( ND ) was curvilinearly related to mean nest density ( D ) and linearly to mean distance between nests ( Dis ), the respective statistical relationships being
The diameter of nests was also related to nest depth ( Dep ) as
There was no apparent relationship between nesting characteristics and morphometric characters of the reservoirs.     

Premolar root morphology and metric variation in Pan troglodytes verus

Premolar root form remains an important taxonomic character in hominin alpha taxonomy. Variation in detailed aspects of root structure remains poorly characterized in extant apes. This limited comparative context hinders evaluations of the significance of root form variation in hominin systematics. Using micro‐computed tomography we examine morphological variation in premolars in 51 (n = 128 premolars) West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). We categorize premolar root/canal form and number, based on the external root surface and pulp canal morphology, and test for a relationship between canal configuration and sex, jaw size, tooth/root size and cervix shape. Jaw size and root size/shape were quantified using standard metrics, and geometric morphometrics was used to examine root form and cervix shape. Our results confirm previous findings in external root form, but reveal previously undocumented variation in mandibular premolar canal number/form in this subspecies. The LP3 and UP4 exhibit variation in canal number/form, while the UP3 is restricted to external root configurations. The LP4 expresses only a single root/canal form. Generally, in LP3 and UP4 there is no correlation between canal form/number and sex, root size, and jaw size; UP4 canal variation covaried with cervix shape and size. Cervix size is significantly greater in three canal UP4s than two canal UP4s. Our results highlight canal form/number as an important aspect when characterizing root form. The implications of our results for the taxonomic utility of root form within the hominoid and hominin clades are discussed. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:632–646, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Oospore variation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nitella gracilis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nitella mucronata</Emphasis> (Charales,Charophyceae) from Poland

The determination of the members of Charales (Charophyceae) is not easy. The main reason of this is a wide range of variation in vegetative characters within most of the species. Many features such as the extent of branchlet cortication, the degree of incrustation, length and number of bract cells, spine cells, stipulodes, diameter of the main axis and oospore size and color do not have universal taxonomic significance. In similar, many Nitella species characters such as: general habitus, branchlets and presence of the top segment (mucro), are helpful in determination, however they are often not developed. In this case, the features of oospore wall ornamentation revealed by light and scanning microscopy can be important taxonomic characters of the Charales. The present study shows interspecific variations of the oospore in two Nitella species from Poland which can be helpful in correct determination of both species. Some of the oospore features like number of striae and fossa width can not be used, as they appeared statistically unimportant, and cannot be used in distinguishing between both species. The presented results are the first detailed report of oospore wall ornamentation pattern from Poland for the species studied. Oospore features are presented in detail on the background of some additional tips and among them particularly: length and width of the oospore, ISI idex, width of fossa, width of striae and number of striae.     

Differences between two sympatric species of Tethya (Porifera, Demospongiae) concerning the growth and final form of their megasters

The megasters of T. aurantium and T. citrina consist, in their mature stage, of spherasters and spheroxyasters respectively. A study of the ratio between the ray length and the diameter of the centre (R/C), which determines the megaster shape, has been carried out on spicules of different size.
While the small megasters of these two species have a similar shape, successive stages show in T. aurantium an isometric growth and in T. citrina an allometric growth with rays growing faster than the centre. The two species differ also in the mean size, size frequency distribution and number of rays of the asters. Differences in the mean total diameter and shape were also detected among spicules coming from different regions of the sponge body. The taxonomic and evolutionary meaning of these phenomena are discussed.     

Inter- and intraspecific variation in grass phytolith shape and size: a geometric morphometrics perspective

Background and AimsThe relative contributions of inter- and intraspecific variation to phytolith shape and size have only been investigated in a limited number of studies. However, a detailed understanding of phytolith variation patterns among populations or even within a single plant specimen is of key importance for the correct taxonomic identification of grass taxa in fossil samples and for the reconstruction of vegetation and environmental conditions in the past. In this study, we used geometric morphometric analysis for the quantification of different sources of phytolith shape and size variation.MethodsWe used landmark-based geometric morphometric methods for the analysis of phytolith shapes in two extant grass species (Brachypodium pinnatum and B. sylvaticum). For each species, 1200 phytoliths were analysed from 12 leaves originating from six plants growing in three populations. Phytolith shape and size data were subjected to multivariate Procrustes analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate regression, principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis.Key ResultsInterspecific variation largely outweighed intraspecific variation with respect to phytolith shape. Individual phytolith shapes were classified with 83 % accuracy into their respective species. Conversely, variation in phytolith shapes within species but among populations, possibly related to environmental heterogeneity, was comparatively low.ConclusionsOur results imply that phytolith shape relatively closely corresponds to the taxonomic identity of closely related grass species. Moreover, our methodological approach, applied here in phytolith analysis for the first time, enabled the quantification and separation of variation that is not related to species discrimination. Our findings strengthen the role of grass phytoliths in the reconstruction of past vegetation dynamics.     

从水力结构的角度解释生长温度对烟草叶片形状和大小的影响（英文）

叶片形状和大小在不同的生长温度下变化非常大,但少有从水力结构的角度解释其变化原因的研究。本研究测定了生长于两个不同温度下(24℃/18℃昼/夜;32℃/26℃昼/夜)的烟草叶片的解剖结构,导水率,叶片长宽比和叶面积。生长在24℃/18℃下的烟草叶片与生长在32℃/18℃的叶片相比,更狭窄,并有更小的叶柄导管直径,更低的叶脉密度和导水率。然而,在不同的生长温度下,烟草叶面积并没有显著差异。叶片导水率与叶脉密度呈正相关,但与叶片长宽比呈负相关。结果表明在不同的生长温度下叶片解剖结构和叶片导水率可能对于改变叶宽比起着重要作用。     

AUXOSPORE FORMATION IN TWO MARINE CLONES OF THE DIATOM GENUS COSCINODISCUS

Auxospore formation has been observed in two marine clones of the diatom genus Coscinodiscus. In each of these clones the variation in valve morphology and structure before and after auxospore formation is appreciable. This variability suggests a reappraisal of the taxonomic characters within the genus will be required if the kinds and types of variation noted are substantiated in other clones. The clones are monecious and the 32 uniflagellate colorless monads, inferred from indirect evidence to be male gametes, form within an undifferentiated mother cell. The method of release of the male gametes differs in the two clones; otherwise their development is similar. The zygote is recognizable and the formation of large diameter cells within the zygote membranes has been observed.     

3. Biodiversity, biogeography and conservation of diatoms

Recent morphometric and breeding studies of diatoms show that the present species classification is too coarse and hides significant diversity. Many species are subdivided into phenodemes, which often differ in cell size, shape, stria density and pattern, but may also have different ultrastructural features. In raphid diatoms these can include the form of the raphe endings, details of the pore occlusions, and the structure of the girdle, while chloroplast structure can also vary. The phenodemes can be sympatric or allopatric. In Sellaphora pupula and other species, sympatric phenodemes are reproductively isolated. It is recommended that such demes are recognized as separate species; the total number of diatom species worldwide may thus be at least 2 × 10⁵. Use of a fine-grained classification reveals that many diatom species may be endemics, some restricted to a single lake or catchment, others to wider areas. Environmental impact assessments and conservation strategies must begin to take account of endemism and rarity among microscopic algae and protists.     

Patterns of invertebrate density and taxonomic richness across gradients of area,isolation, and vegetation diversity in a lake‐island system

Over the past half century, ecologists have tried to unravel the factors that drive species richness patterns in ecological communities. One influential theory is island biogeography theory (IBT), which predicts that island or habitat area and isolation are drivers of species richness. However, relatively few studies testing IBT have considered invertebrate or belowground communities, and it is unclear as to whether the predictions made by IBT hold for these communities. Other theories predict that habitat characteristics such as vegetation diversity may be important drivers of invertebrate species richness. To investigate patterns of invertebrate density and species richness across gradients of area, isolation, and vegetation diversity, we used a system of 30 lake islands in the boreal zone of northern Sweden. We assessed density and taxonomic richness of ground‐dwelling spiders, web‐building spiders, beetles, collembolans, mites, and nematodes, for all islands during two consecutive summers. For all invertebrate groups, both density and taxonomic richness were either neutrally or negatively related to island size, and either neutrally or positively related to island isolation. Meanwhile the density and taxonomic richness for several groups was positively related to vegetation diversity (i.e. habitat heterogeneity). In multiple regression analyses, island size was often the single best predictor for both invertebrate density and taxonomic richness, but in some cases island size and isolation in combination explained more variation than each factor considered singly. Contrary to IBT predictions, invertebrate density and richness was never positively related to island size or negatively related to island isolation. Instead, our results suggest that plant diversity (and thus habitat heterogeneity) was the main driver of the patterns that we found, although other factors could have some influence. We conclude that several factors, but not necessarily those predicted as important by IBT, are important in determining invertebrate abundance and species richness in island systems.     

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION AND PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY OF NUMBER OF TRUNK VERTEBRAE IN SLENDER SALAMANDERS,BATRACHOSEPS (CAUDATA: PLETHODONTIDAE)

To understand the evolutionary significance of geographic variation, one must identify the factors that generate phenotypic differences among populations. I examined the causes of geographic variation in and evolutionary history of number of trunk vertebrae in slender salamanders, Batrachoseps (Caudata: Plethodontidae). Number of trunk vertebrae varies at many taxonomic levels within Batrachoseps. Parallel clines in number occur along an environmental gradient in three lineages in the Coast Ranges of California. These parallel clines may signal either adaptation or a shared phenotypically plastic response to the environmental gradient. By raising eggs from 10 populations representing four species of Batrachoseps, I demonstrated that number of trunk vertebrae can be altered by the developmental temperature; however, the degree of plasticity is insufficient to account for geographic variation. Thus, the geographic variation results largely from genetic variation. Number of trunk vertebrae covaries with body size and shape in diverse vertebrate taxa, including Batrachoseps. I hypothesize that selection for different degrees of elongation, possibly related to fossoriality, has led to the extensive evolution of number of trunk vertebrae in Batrachoseps. Analysis of intrapopulational variation revealed sexual dimorphism in both body shape and number of trunk vertebrae, but no correlation between these variables in either sex. Females are more elongate than males, a pattern that has been attributed to fecundity selection in other taxa. Patterns of covariation among different classes of vertebrae suggest that some intrapopulational variation in number results from changes in vertebral identity rather than changes in segmentation.     

Evolutionary change in seed size among some legume species: The effects of phylogeny

The importance of phylogenetic effects in controlling seed size variation at the macroevolutionary levels was examined using species of a well-defined, monophyletic family, the Leguminosae. A nested ANOVA was used to separate variance components at the various taxonomic levels such as subfamily, genus, and subgenus. Statistical significance was found at most of the taxonomic levels examined, which suggests that phylogeny as shown by the accepted taxonomy of the family, exerted a substantial influence over seed size variation. Thus, there appears to be a characteristic mean seed size for each genus and subgenus. The overall positive correlation between plant height and seed size was interpreted as a scaling of seed size to plant height. When the effect of plant height was controlled, the amount of variance changed to some extent across taxonomic levels, though resulting in no change in statistical significance at various taxonomic levels. This results indicate that phylogenetic effects in seed size variation among congeneric or consubgeneric groupings were largely independent of allometric effects. The patterns of variance components and intraclass correlation coefficients for seed size differed to some extent among subfamilies. The difference in those patterns among taxa will reflect evolutionary change more closely with larger sample sizes. A simple inverse relationship between seed size and number per fruit among related legume species was difficult to generalize. This was perhaps due to phylogenetic constraints on seed size and/or seed number (or ovule number). These results demonstrate that phylogeny and plant height affect seed size variation among related species.     

Size variation facilitates population divergence but does not explain it all: an example study from a widespread African monkey

Subspecific variation is widespread in vertebrates. Within Africa, several mammals have extensive geographic distributions with attendant morphological, ecological, and behavioural variations, which are often used to demarcate subspecies. In the present study, we use a primate species, the vervet monkey, Cercopithecus aethiops, as a case study for intraspecific divergence in widespread mammals, assessed through hard tissue morphology. We examine intraspecific differences in size, shape, and non‐allometric shape from a taxonomic perspective, and discuss the macroevolutionary implications of findings from microevolutionary analyses of geographic variation. A geometric morphometric approach was used, employing 86 three‐dimensional landmarks of almost 300 provenanced crania. Many of the taxonomic differences in skull morphology between vervet populations appear to be related to geographic proximity, with subspecies at opposite extremes of a west‐to‐east axis showing greatest divergence, and populations from central and south Africa being somewhat intermediate. The classification rate from discriminant analyses was lower than that observed in other African primate radiations, including guenons as a whole and red colobus. Nonetheless, taxonomic differences in shape were significant and not simply related to either geography or size. Thus, although shifts in size may be an important first step in adaptation and diversification, with size responding more quickly than shape to environmental change, the six vervet taxa currently recognized (either as species or subspecies) are not simply allometrically scaled versions of one another and are probably best viewed as subspecies. Holding allometry constant when examining inter‐population differences in shape may thus help to reveal the early stages of evolutionary divergence. The vervet case study presented here hence has relevance for future studies examining intraspecific differentiation in other large mammals, particularly through the methods used to identify small but biologically meaningful divergence, with attendant implications for conservation planning. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101 , 823–843.     

PATTERNS OF QUANTITATIVE VARIATION IN LEPIDOPTERAN WING MORPHOLOGY: THE CONVERGENT GROUPS HELICONIINAE AND ITHOMIINAE (PAPILIONOIDEA: NYMPHALIDAE)

Wing morphology has historically been a major focus in taxonomic and evolutionary studies of lepidopterans. However, general patterns of quantitative variation and diversification in wing sizes and shapes and the factors underlying them have been unexplored. A morphometric study of wing variation in the convergent heliconine and ithomine butterflies reveals remarkable similarities, both in their morphologies at a given size and in their patterns of allometry and variability. The groups differ primarily in the relative lengths of inner and outer forewing margins, with larger species being more similar across groups than smaller ones. Allometric size-scaling variation accounts for more than 90% of the total morphological variation in the two groups and thus seems to be the major determinant of wing shape. Forewings and hind wings are isometric in size (area) with respect to one another; however, wing shape within and among groups is significantly allometric, resulting in considerable shape differences between small and large species. A strong trend of increasing variability from anterior to posterior along the wings is consistent with hypotheses of aerodynamic constraint. Wings and bodies represent classical morphological “character suites” in that size and shape variation are more tightly correlated within suites than among them. Such complexes argue against the overriding importance of aerodynamic factors, such as wing load and muscle development, in constraining gross morphology.     

Sex-based divergence in head shape and diet in the Eastern lubber grasshopper (Romalea microptera)

Biologists are becoming increasingly aware of sex-based differences in ecologically important traits (locomotor performance, feeding morphology, thermoregulatory behavior). Yet, the overwhelming majority of these studies have been performed on vertebrates, despite often striking examples of sexual size dimorphism among the insects. Here, I tested whether adult male and female Eastern lubber grasshoppers differ in size/shape and feeding ecology. The morphological data clearly showed sex-based differences in several aspects of head and body size, with females being significantly larger in all aspects. Moreover, the sexes also differed in two aspects of size-adjusted morphology: head width and pronotum width, with females having relatively wider heads and thoraxes than males. Multiple regression analysis indicated that width of consumed foliage was positively related to pronotum width and foliage thickness was positively related to pronotum width, head width, and size-adjusted head width. Females consumed wider and thicker foliage (primarily smooth cord grass, Spartina alterniflora) than males, which most frequently consumed the narrow-leafed forb hemp sesbania (Sesbania macrocarpa). Therefore, the sex-based differences in size and shape in this grasshopper are correlated with differences in consumed foliage shape.