THE GIRAFFE OF NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK: HOME RANGE, SEX RATIOS, THE HERD, AND FOOD

The giraffe of Nairobi National Park, Kenya have been studied for one year. Each animal seen has been photographed from the left side and the pattern on the neck used to recognize each individual. While the pattern may become darker with age, it does not significantly change in detail even over many years. At present 65 adult male, 72 adult female and 30 immature giraffe can be recognized. Movements of individuals are described as well as associations with other individuals. The 3ex ratio of the giraffe is discussed in relation to that found in the plains ungulates. The population of giraffe in the Park is considered to be particularly high and the relation of giraffe to the vegetation is discussed briefly.     

Effects of restraint stress in gestation: implications for rodent developmental toxicology studies

Restraint has been used as a procedure to study the effects of stress on gestation outcome in rodents. The effects of restraint could potentially be used as a model for the impact of general stress produced by high doses of toxicants and other interventions. In mice, restraint in the peri-implantation period leads to implantation failure, and restraint at appropriate times in organogenesis produces cleft palate, supernumerary ribs, and resorption. In rats, there is some evidence for an association with restraint for implantation failure, but not for the morphological anomalies. Restraint in late gestation alters adult sexual behavior of male rat offspring, but consequences for their fertility are not known. Intrauterine growth retardation is not commonly associated with gestational restraint. In the few studies where they have been directly compared, different restraint procedures produced graded, qualitatively different, or no effects. Adrenocortical hormones have been implicated as mediating the effect of restraint on cleft palate, but not on supernumerary ribs, implantation failure, or sexual differentiation. Given the variety of restraint procedures and the varying species-dependent consequences, it is not possible to infer a generalizable pattern of developmental effects due to gestational stress from the restraint literature. As an alternative approach, contemporary methods in gene expression and developmental biology could profitably be applied to understanding different patterns of stress-mediated effects of toxicant exposures on intrauterine development.     

Giraffe squeeze cage procedure

A squeeze cage at Woodland Park Zoo has become a valuable tool in giraffe management. The cage has been used 63 times in 4 years with no serious injuries to animals or personnel. Conditioning the giraffes to the cage is of foremost importance in planning a successful restraining procedure. Individual giraffes react differently to the stress of being confined, so careful monitoring of behavior throughout is imperative to anticipate and prevent potential problems. Staff should be fully trained in the use of the equipment and familiar with the temperament of the giraffe. The cage is used for hoof trimming and routine medical examinations, including blood collection, X-rays, and giving injections.     

Behavioral Strategies of Individuals Who Have Maintained Long-Term Weight Losses

MCGUIRE, MAUREEN T., RENA R. WING, MARY L. KLEM, AND JAMES O. HILL. Behavioral strategies of individuals who have maintained long-term weight losses. Obes Res. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to compare the behaviors of individuals who have achieved long-term weight loss maintenance with those of regainers and weight-stable controls. Research Methods and Procedures: Subjects for the present study were participants in a random-digit dial telephone survey that used a representative sample of the U. S. adult population. Eating, exercise, self-weighing, and dietary restraint characteristics were compared among weight-loss maintainers: individuals who had intentionally lost ≥10% of their weight and maintained it for ≥1 year (n = 69), weight-loss regainers: individuals who intentionally lost ≥10% of their weight but had not maintained it (n = 56), and weight-stable controls: individuals who had never lost ≥10% of their maximum weight and had maintained their current weight (±10 pounds) within the past 5 years (n= 113). Results: Weight-loss maintainers had lost an average of 37 pounds and maintained it for over 7 years. These individuals reported that they currently used more behavioral strategies to control dietary fat intake, have higher levels of physical activity (especially strenuous activity), and greater frequency of self-weighing than either the weight-loss regainers or weight-stable controls. Maintainers and regainers did not differ in reported levels of dietary restraint, but both had higher levels of restraint than the weight-stable controls. Discussion: These results suggest that weight-loss maintainers use more behavioral strategies to control their weight than either regainers or weight-stable controls. It would thus appear that long-term weight maintenance requires ongoing adherence to a low-fat diet and an exercise regimen in addition to continued attention to body weight.     

Comparison of rectal and tympanic core body temperature measurement in adult Guyanese squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus sciureus)

Background Measuring core body temperature in a manner that is safe for animals and veterinary personnel is an important part of a physical examination. For nonhuman primates, this can involve increased restraint, additional stress, as well as the use of anesthetics and their deleterious effects on body temperature measurements. The purpose of this study was to compare two non‐invasive methods of infrared tympanic thermometry to standard rectal thermometry in adult squirrel monkeys. Methods Tympanic temperatures were collected from 37 squirrel monkeys and compared to rectal temperatures using a human and veterinary infrared tympanic thermometer. Results Compared with rectal temperature measurements, the human tympanic thermometer readings were not significantly different, while the veterinary tympanic thermometer measurements were significantly higher (P < 0.05). There were no differences between sexes. Conclusions The tympanic thermometer designed for use in humans can be used in adult squirrel monkeys as an alternative to rectal thermometry for assessing core body temperature.     

Development of a self-contained,indwelling vaginal temperature probe for use in cattle research

A device was developed to monitor the vaginal temperature of cattle in a research setting. This device decreases labor involved with monitoring body temperature compared with manual temperature readings, allows for continuous monitoring of vaginal temperature at 1 min intervals, and also allows for temperature measurements without the presence of a human handler or without restraint, which can agitate cattle. The device consists of a blank controlled internal drug release (CIDR) device (designed by Pfizer Animal Health as an indwelling vaginal probe) that holds an indwelling vaginal temperature probe logger. The fabrication of the vaginal probe costs approximately US $325 per unit. Similar rectal and vaginal temperature responses to lipopolysaccharide challenge were observed when vaginal and rectal temperatures were measured simultaneously in the same heifer (P>0.05). Additionally, rectal and vaginal temperatures were highly correlated (r=0.97; P<0.0001). Similar to the rectal temperature monitoring device, the vaginal device allows for the measurement of vaginal temperature without the potential biases associated with the stress response produced as a reaction to the handling by and (or) presence of humans. The vaginal temperature recording device will provide researchers with an additional inexpensive tool to study physiological responses in female cattle.     

Effect of physical restraint on oxidative stress in mice fed a selenium and vitamin E deficient diet

Physical restraint has been associated with increased oxidative damage to lipid, protein, and DNA. The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether physical restraint would further exacerbate oxidative stress in mice fed a selenium (Se) and vitamin E (VE) deficient diet. Three-week-old mice were fed a Torula yeast diet containing adequate or deficient Se and VE. Menhaden oil was added to the deficient diet to impose an additional oxidative stress. After 4 wk feeding, half the mice in each group were restrained for 5 d in well-ventilated conical tubes for 8 h daily. Mice fed the Se and VE deficient diets had increased liver thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) levels and decreased liver glutathione peroxidase (GPX1) activity and α-tocopherol levels. Plasma corticosterone levels were elevated in restrained mice fed the deficient diet compared to unrestrained mice fed the adequate diet. Restraint had no effect on liver TBARS or α-tocopherol levels. Liver GPX1 activity, however, was lower in restrained mice fed the adequate diet. In addition, liver superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was lower in the restrained mice fed the adequate or deficient diet. Thus, under our conditions, Se and VE deficient diet, but not restraint, increased lipid peroxidation in mice. Restraint, however, decreased antioxidant protection in mice due to decreased activities of GPX1 and SOD enzymes.     

Serum concentrations of amino acids,fatty acids,lipoproteins, vitamins A and E,and minerals in apparently healthy,free‐ranging southern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffe)

This pilot project began establishing a nutritional profile for free‐ranging giraffe. The results will be used as a tool to begin assessing the nutritional status of captive giraffe. In October 2004 serum samples were collected opportunistically from seven adult and 17 sub‐adult giraffe being anesthetized for different studies. Seventeen animals were from Double Drift Game Reserve and seven animals were from Kariega Private Game Reserve. The serum samples were analyzed for circulating concentrations of amino acids, fatty acids, lipoproteins, vitamins, and minerals. Information from 15 serum samples collected from anesthetized giraffe in Kruger National Park during April and August 2003 was included in the calcium and phosphorus concentration data. No significant differences were identified between genders. Significant differences between locations were identified for concentrations of certain amino acids, fatty acids, and lipoproteins. Differences between locations are likely due to different nutrient concentrations of foods and possibly the result of different animal densities forcing different food choices among locations. This pilot project may expand to include changes in circulating nutrient concentrations for free‐ranging giraffe as is influenced by other locations, seasonal food availability, and different giraffe subspecies. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Food supply and poaching limit giraffe abundance in the Serengeti

The iconic giraffe, an ecologically important browser, has shown a substantial decline in numbers across Africa since the 1990s. In Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, giraffes reached densities of 1.5–2.6 individuals km⁻² in the 1970s coincident with a pulse of Acacia tree recruitment. However, despite continued increases in woody cover between the 1980s and the 2000s, giraffe recruitment and survival rates have declined and density has dropped to only 0.3–0.4 giraffes km⁻². We used a decision table to investigate how four extrinsic factors may have contributed to these declines: food supply, predation, parasites, and poaching, which have all been previously shown to limit Serengeti ungulate populations. Lower recruitment likely resulted from a reduction in diet quality, owing to the replacement of preferred trees with unpalatable species, while decreased adult survival resulted from illegal harvesting, which appears to have had a greater impact on giraffe populations bordering the western and northern Serengeti. The Serengeti giraffe population will likely persist at low-to-moderate densities until palatable tree species regain their former abundance. Leslie matrix models suggest that park managers should meanwhile redouble their efforts to reduce poaching, thereby improving adult survival.     

Predicting the buoyancy, equilibrium and potential swimming ability of giraffes by computational analysis

Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) are often stated to be unable to swim, and while few observations supporting this have ever been offered, we sought to test the hypothesis that giraffes exhibited a body shape or density unsuited for locomotion in water. We assessed the floating capability of giraffes by simulating their buoyancy with a three-dimensional mathematical/computational model. A similar model of a horse (Equus caballus) was used as a control, and its floating behaviour replicates the observed orientations of immersed horses. The floating giraffe model has its neck sub-horizontal, and the animal would struggle to keep its head clear of the water surface. Using an isometrically scaled-down giraffe model with a total mass equal to that of the horse, the giraffe's proportionally larger limbs have much higher rotational inertias than do those of horses, and their wetted surface areas are 13.5% greater relative to that of the horse, thus making rapid swimming motions more strenuous. The mean density of the giraffe model (960 gm/l) is also higher than that of the horse (930 gm/l), and closer to that causing negative buoyancy (1000 gm/l). A swimming giraffe - forced into a posture where the neck is sub-horizontal and with a thorax that is pulled downwards by the large fore limbs - would not be able to move the neck and limbs synchronously as giraffes do when moving on land, possibly further hampering the animal's ability to move its limbs effectively underwater. We found that a full-sized, adult giraffe will become buoyant in water deeper than 2.8 m. While it is not impossible for giraffes to swim, we speculate that they would perform poorly compared to other mammals and are hence likely to avoid swimming if possible.     

Rothschild’s giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi (Linnaeus, 1758) in East Africa: A review of population trends,taxonomy and conservation status

Giraffe populations have suffered a 40% decline in the past thirty years, making them a new priority for conservation and there are considerable uncertainty and disagreement over the taxonomic classification of giraffes. Consequently, there has never been a more critical time to fully understand the global population size and distribution of all giraffe subspecies. The Rothschild's giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi (Linnaeus, 1758) is arguably one of the most imperilled giraffe subspecies. Once widespread across southern Sudan, Uganda and Kenya, the Rothschild's giraffe is now confined to a few, isolated and enclosed populations throughout Kenya and Uganda, with only one natural population remaining. Information about Rothschild's giraffe population size, distribution, and conservation history is patchy, and confined to recondite or inaccessible resources. Here, I present a review of taxonomy, distribution, conservation status and population size of the Rothschild's giraffe and present the most recent estimate of population sizes based on direct census data. Although the Latin name affixed to Rothschild's giraffe is subject to discussion, continued reference to this subspecies as G. c. rothschildi is strongly recommended.     

On the Relation of Attempting to Lose Weight,Restraint, and Binge Eating in Outpatients with Binge Eating Disorder

Objective: To examine the relationship among attempts to lose weight, restraint, and eating behavior in outpatients with binge eating disorder (BED). Research Methods and Procedures: Participants were 93 consecutive outpatients evaluated for a clinical trial who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth edition criteria for BED. The Eating Disorder Examination Interview was administered to assess attempts at weight loss, restraint, different forms of overeating, and the attitudinal psychopathology of eating disorders (i.e., concerns regarding eating, shape, and weight). In addition, the Three‐Factor Eating Questionnaire was used to assess cognitive restraint, hunger, and disinhibition. Psychometrically established measures were given to assess body dissatisfaction, depression, and self‐esteem. Results: The majority of participants (75.3%; N = 70) reported attempting to lose weight, but only 37.6% (N = 35) reported dietary restraint on at least half the days of the month. Dietary restraint and cognitive restraint were not associated with any form of binge eating or overeating. Dietary restraint and cognitive restraint were positively correlated with weight concern, shape concern, and body dissatisfaction, and negatively correlated with body mass index. To further examine the interplay between attempting to lose weight and restraint, three study groups were created: unrestrained nonattempters (21.5%, N = 20), unrestrained attempters (40.9%; N = 38), and restrained attempters (34.4%; N = 32). The three groups did not differ significantly on binge eating or other eating behaviors; however, significant differences were observed for weight concern, shape concern, and body dissatisfaction. Discussion: Attempts to lose weight and restraint are not synonymous for patients with BED. Although 75.3% of BED patients reported that they were attempting to lose weight, only 37.6% reported dietary restraint on at least half the days of the previous month. While restraint was negatively associated with body mass index, it was not related to binge eating or overeating. Our findings raise questions about prevailing models that posit restraint as a predominant factor in the maintenance of binge eating in BED.     

Updated geographic range maps for giraffe,Giraffa spp., throughout sub‐Saharan Africa,and implications of changing distributions for conservation

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The scent of the reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata)

The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) emits a scent that can be detected by humans over considerable distances. Dichloromethane extracts of hair samples from adult male and female reticulated giraffes (G. c. reticulata) were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Two highly odoriferous compounds, indole and 3-methylindole, identified in these extracts appear to be primarily responsible for the giraffe’s strong scent. Other major compounds identified were octane, benzaldehyde, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, p-cresol, tetradecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, and 3,5-androstadien-17-one; the last compound has not previously been identified from a natural source. These compounds may deter microorganisms or ectoparasitic arthropods. Most of these compounds are known to possess bacteriostatic or fungistatic properties against mammalian skin pathogens or other microorganisms. The levels of p-cresol in giraffe hair are sufficient to repel some ticks.     

The Association of Body Weight,Dietary Intake,and Energy Expenditure with Dietary Restraint and Disinhibition

LAWSON, OLGA J, DONALD A WILLIAMSON, CATHERINE M CHAMPAGNE, JAMES P DELANY, ELLEN R BROOKS, PAULA M HOWAT, PATRICIA J WOZNIAK, GEORGE A BRAY AND DONNA H RYAN. The association of body weight, dietary intake, and energy expenditure with dietary restraint and disinhibition. Obes Res. 1995;3:153–161. The hypotheses that dieting and/or overeating are associated with adiposity, eating disturbances, and lowered energy expenditure were tested in this study. A sample of 44 premenopausal women scoring high and low on measures of dietary restraint and disinhibition of dietary control, as measured by the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire, was studied. A 2 × 2 factorial design was employed (High/Low Restraint x High/Low Disinhibition). Dependent variables were: body composition, dietary intake, activity, resting metabolic rate, and thermic effect of food. Unrestrained overeaters (Low Restraint/High Disinhibition group) were very obese. High Dietary Restraint was associated with intent to diet and controlled eating. High scores on the Disinhibition Scale were associated with episodic overeating. Groups did not differ in resting metabolic rate (controlled for fat-free mass). Lower thermic effect of food was found to be associated with the obesity found in High Disinhibition subjects. Thus, Dietary Restraint was not associated with significant adverse effects upon physical or psychological health. High Disinhibition, however, was associated with adiposity and significant disturbances of eating.     

Assessment of contrafreeloading preferences in giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

Contrafreeloading is an intriguing phenomenon in which animals will work to obtain resources, such as food, when the same resource is simultaneously freely available. Multiple hypotheses exist for why animals might choose to contrafreeload. In this study, we assessed preferences for contrafreeloading in giraffe at the Bronx Zoo to determine whether they actually preferred to contrafreeload or were simply demonstrating a willingness to contrafreeload. Food was presented in a range of distributions between an easily accessed feeding device and a more challenging one and the giraffes’ feeding behavior at these two types of feeding devices was recorded. As the experiments progressed, more giraffe used these more challenging feeders. There was significant individual variation in the expression of preference for contrafreeloading and willingness to contrafreeload. Individual, phase of the experiment, and an interaction between these factors were significant predictors of challenge feeder use. Three foraging strategies emerged among the giraffe that we termed “freeloaders,” “contrafreeloaders,” and “opportunists.” The results of this study demonstrate that multiple indices of preference are necessary when assessing contrafreeloading behavior, and that giraffe are affected to different degrees by the factors that stimulate contrafreeloading. These results may shed light on why different individuals use complex feeding enrichment devices to varying extents.     

The effects of cold and restraint on the glucose level, bilirubin level and the production of stressed ulcers in rats

The effect of restraint and cold on the glucose level, bilirubin level and production of stress ulcers were studied in white, adult male, Sprague-Dawley rats of the Holtzman strain. In addition, the role of mucin in reducing incidence of gastric lesions produced by stress was investigated. The highest incidence and depth of ulceration was produced by the stress factor combination of fasting for 24 h followed by physical restraint and cold exposure for 2 h. Under these conditions only one of the experimental rats died throughout the experimentation period. Fasting alone did not produce ulceration. The stress factor combination of fasting for 24 h, followed by physical restraint and cold exposure for 2 h resulted in an increase in glucose level. Increase in bilirubin level was highest in the stress factor combination of fasting, physical restraint and cold exposure acting synergistically. It can thus be hypothesized that the higher the bilirubin level the greater is the rate of red blood cell destruction. Introduction of 2 ml mucin directly into the stomach of the stressed rats reduced ulceration incidence by more than 50%.     

A reduced representation of proteins for use in restraint satisfaction calculations

A reduced representation of paroteins has been developed for use in restraint satisfaction calculations with dynamic simulated annealing. Each amino acid residue is represented by up to four spherical virtual atoms. The virtual bonds and excluded volume of these atoms has ben parameterized by analysis of 83 protein structures determined at high resolution by X-ray crystallography. The use of the new representation in NOE distance restraint satisfaction has been compared with the standard all-atom represntation for the determination of the structures of crambin, eshistatin, and protein G. Using the reduced representation, there is a 30-fold decrease in the computer time needed for generatin a single structure, and up to a 20-fold decrease in the time taken to produce an acceptable structure compared to using the all-atom representation. The root mean square deviation between the mean structure obtain with all-atom and reduced representation si between 1.5 and 1.7 Å for C_α atoms. The new representation is adequate for describing the “low-resolution” features of protein structure such as the general fold and the positions of the secondary structure for more detailed refinement with the full all-atom representation. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

长期和短期限制性束缚对小鼠造血干细胞的不同影响

慢性心理应激会导致机体多种功能紊乱,其中包括免疫力下降。慢性心理应激能够负调节免疫系统,但机制尚未完全阐明。免疫细胞,包括髓系来源细胞,由骨髓造血干细胞(hematopoietic stem cell, HSC)分化而来,在机体免疫中发挥重要作用。本实验采用短期高强度束缚和长期温和束缚慢性心理应激小鼠模型,探讨不同限制性束缚模式对小鼠骨髓HSC和髓系来源细胞的影响。长期温和束缚模型中,对小鼠连续束缚4周,每天束缚2次,每次束缚2 h (9:00到17:00间完成);短期高强度束缚模型中,小鼠连续束缚5天,每天束缚16 h (当日17:00到次日9:00)。束缚完成后,取小鼠骨髓和外周血进行白细胞计数,流式细胞术检测小鼠骨髓HSC (Lin^-CD117^+Sca1^+CD150^+CD48^-)和髓系细胞(CD11b^+Ly6C^+)的比例和绝对数,以及外周血髓系细胞的比例和绝对数,BrdU掺入实验检测小鼠HSC增殖能力。实验结果表明,长期温和应激导致小鼠骨髓HSC的比例和绝对数增加,而短期高强度应激导致小鼠骨髓HSC的绝对数下降,伴有HSC的增殖下降。两种束缚模式都使小鼠骨髓和外周血CD11b^+Ly6C^+细胞的总数增加或呈现增加的趋势。综上所述,长期温和应激和短期高强度应激对小鼠HSC的比例和绝对数影响不同;两种应激模型都可以使CD11b^+Ly6C^+细胞总数增加,HSC增多可能并不是CD11b^+Ly6C^+细胞增多的主要机制。